tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4905914073164475552024-02-02T09:04:21.219-08:00Existence and AnthropologyPRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.comBlogger29125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-7123576297538350132020-11-23T06:53:00.000-08:002020-11-23T06:53:50.948-08:00<h1 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Garamond; font-size: 15px;">Robben oder Menschen? Bartolomé de Las Casas über die anthropologische Bedeutung der Versklavung, in </span><i style="font-family: Garamond; font-size: 15px;">‘De homine’ : Anthropologien in der frühen Neuzeit</i><span style="font-family: Garamond; font-size: 15px;">, ed. Sascha Salatowsky and Wilhelm Schmidt-Biggemann (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2021), 31-50.</span><span class="Apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Garamond; font-size: 15px;"> </span></h1>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-9913560456721374422020-10-22T07:25:00.001-07:002020-10-22T07:25:44.815-07:00<p>
</p><h1 style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Nat
Turner: The Melancholy of Resistance <br />Renaissance Motives in an American Slave Rebellion</span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Paul
Richard Blum (Loyola University Maryland, Baltimore)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Abstract:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">One would think rebellion
and melancholy are unrelated if not contradictory. But as a matter of fact, Nat
Turner the instigator of a slave rebellion in North America in 1831, described
himself as going through psychic states that in Early Modernity would be
classified as melancholic. On a close look at his statements to a lawyer, the
source of our knowledge of his troubles, we discover his autobiography and
melancholy go together, both being rooted in self-reflection. And so is
resistance by slaves a symptom of their self-relatedness that made them
conscious of their toil and fueled their rebellion. Nat Turner and his interviewer
lacked the terminology to describe such passions, but Turner reveals to be
imbued with ideas and thought patterns that have their origin in early modern spirituality
like Jacob Boehme, alchemy, and other occult sciences of the Renaissance.
Although Turner’s revolt has enjoyed much attention from historians of African
American slavery, so far it has never occurred that his is also a case of the
afterlife of early modern thought. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> Let
me first explain the title of my presentation. In 1989, László Krasznahorkai
published the novel <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Melancholy of
Resistance </i>(in Hungarian: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Az
ellenállás melankóliája</i>). We notice the year 1989, so it must have to do
with the Velvet Revolution, as it was called in then Czechoslovakia. Among many
other things, this is a story of boredom soaked with alcohol and provincial
inertia. I was reminded of this novel when I read the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions of Nat Turner</i>, and the reason was again the apparent
contrast between rebellion and idleness that goes along with melancholy. So, my
overall aim is to show that in modernity hyperactivity and resignation are the
symptoms of traditional melancholy. Particularly I want to show that the
medieval and early modern tradition of the theory of the complexions plays out
in a non-specialist environment. However, my most immediate agenda is to show
that philosophical strains are present even in the most non-theoretical texts.<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">I
will briefly explain the affair of Nat Turner, then I will show that his
confession reveals him as imbued with esoteric or occultist knowledge and
motives, and finally I will show the presence of melancholy in his narrative. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">1.
The Nat Turner Rebellion: literary issues</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In
1831, Nat Turner, a black slave in Southampton County, Virginia, instigated a
slave revolt that lasted for two days, during which he and his followers
systematically killed scores of white people in cold blood. The rebellion was
easily struck down by militias and white mobs. A huge number of rebels were
killed or executed after trials. The principal source of this event is the
transcript of an interview given by Turner<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> to the lawyer Thomas Gray
who published it as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Confessions of
Nat Turner</i>.<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
story was retold with the identical title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Confessions of Nat Turner </i>in a 1967 novel by William Styron. However, the
novelist had no use of the occultist and spiritualist ideas of the rebel and
his “divinely ordained retributive mission,” which to Styron came just from “his
apocalyptic and deranged visions.” Most of the passages I will interpret below
are not quoted in the novel, whenever it makes use of the original <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions.</i> “There was no shaking the
fact that on the record Nat Turner was a dangerous rebellious lunatic.”<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a> Instead, he intended to
portray Turner as “a living human being of great power and great potential who
somewhere, in his struggle for freedom and for immortality, lost his way.”<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a> It is surprising that
Styron did not mention Nat Turner in his later essay on depression, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Darkness Visible</i>, that connects medical
facts with a wide range of literary and philosophical models. However, in the
same way as he does not mention John Milton, from whom he borrowed the title of
his essay, he might actually have been implicitly commenting on Turner while
eluding the name.<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
Given the fact that Styron’s novel is written in first person, we may surmise
that his main motivation was his identifying with the slave rebel, although not
pertaining to religious and spiritual motives but rather the struggle for
psychological freedom. In his essay, Styron related clinical depression,
melancholy as it was termed in early modernity, to some religious experience, which,
“in its extreme form, is madness.” And Styron also diagnoses, appropriately as
we will see below, that sometimes a melancholic “will turn to violent thoughts
regarding others.”<a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
Based on Styron’s novel Nate Parker produced a film on Nat Turner in 2016 that
concentrated on the role of slavery in US history, as the title suggests.<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Styron
befriended Truman Capote whom he met in 1952 and 1953 in Paris and Rome.<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a> There were even rumors the
two writers “were romantically involved.”<a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a> While Styron had been
planning to write a novel on Turner for many years, Capote’s book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In Cold Blood </i>came out in 1966, shortly
before Styron’s Turner novel. In a letter, dated February 28, 1966 to James and
Gloria Jones, Styron speaks in ambiguous terms about Capote’s book: “I have had
to fuck around with the plot quite a bit, and change the setting to Kansas and
bring in a quadruple shotgun murder, but basically I’ve kept the integrity of
the book intact and it should sell quite a few copies.”<a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a> As it stands, the remark
reads as though Styron was busy changing the plot and location of Capote’s
book. At any rate, the close relationship between the two authors opens the possibility
that Capote’s story is a narrative re-interpretation or re-enactment of the massacre
of 1831 as a horrendous and senseless crime of his present time. It may be a
trifle, but the court sentence in Turner’s trial convicted him of “plotting in
cold blood.”<a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If we discard the “quadruple shotgun
murder,” what remains is the empty and meaningless life of two young men.
Supposing that such a reading is plausible, we may observe that, here, religion
and violence are on equal terms. Whereas the historic Nat Turner was driven by
religious inspiration (as will be clear in the following) and Styron’s rebel by
sexuality and revenge, Capote presented the absurdity of violence without
transcendence or any higher aspiration.<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a> In this latter regard
Capote bases his plot on the same boredom as Krasznahorkai’s “melancholy of
resistance.”</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">My
interest, in this paper, is the spiritual meaning of the Turner revolt and the
philosophical and religious tradition that is manifested in Turner’s confession.
In the literature on Turner and other slave insurrections, Turner is often
summarily credited for being motivated by religion and quaint ideas. Out of the
huge secondary literature on the case, Patrick Breen takes the inspirational
language into account as long as he is reporting the events. Unfortunately, in
the further analysis, these motives fade away.<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a> Donald G. Mathews had already
delineated Turner’s “Apocalyptic vision ... as if the anger of every Christian
who had ever been a slave had been unleashed.”<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a> Typically, Turner’s
visions and religious motivations are mentioned nominally, but rarely discussed
as to their contents.<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a> In the wake of the
Southampton insurrection, the slaveholders reconsidered their attitudes towards
religious education of slaves, for it appeared to empower them beyond pious
obedience. Apparently, the masters had to choose between Christianity and
slavery.<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, one should not forget that the dominating class constantly drew
inspiration and legitimacy from the Bible and Christian ethics, to the effect
that their slaves were surrounded by Christian habits and practice. For
instance, the administrative center of Southampton County, now the town of
Courtland, was then called Jerusalem. Indeed, some churches did re-invite
slaves into their communities.<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a> To some extent one should
assume that the Christianity of the slaveholders was not much different from
that of their slaves. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
lawyer Gray’s publication had a juridical and a political purpose, namely to prove
to the public of the time that Turner had been rightfully sentenced as a
murderer and to warn everyone against the danger of rebellious slaves. That is
what historians of American slavery are interested in, and the book is, from
that point of view, only one among a large number of publications that
discussed slave uprisings of that time.<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a> For a historian of
literature and philosophy, however, this is a valuable document on how a black
slave, and a rebel, saw himself as an agent. Gray’s transcript of the interview
is a first person narrative of the life and motives of a slave. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Doubts
are frequently raised concerning the authenticity of the transcript. After all,
Gray’s political and legal agendas could have tainted whatever he wrote down
from Turner’s oral report.<a name="_Ref343762755"></a><a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref343762755;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref343762755;"></span> To address this objection it may
suffice to first point out the difference in tone between the surrounding
texts, in which the lawyer addresses the general audience, and the confession
itself. In his address to the public, Gray emphasizes the cruelty of the deed
and the emotional responses to it. The confession itself keeps the tone of a
first person story, and the narrator, Nat Turner, does not at all relish
violence and rampage. As Patrick Breen observed, the text of the confession is several
times interrupted by Gray’s authorial comments, which clearly set the note taker’s
perspective apart from that of the confessor. Gray assures us readers that the
confession was made voluntarily and acknowledged by the defendant in the trial,
since “without being questioned at all, he commenced his narrative in the
following words.”<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a> An indication of the
authenticity is the fact that the confession contains many elements that Gray could
not possibly have invented, and several of the lawyer’s interruptions and
comments lead us to those surprising elements that are peculiar to the slave. It
is these very components over which the interviewer had stumbled that interest
us here, namely, Nat Turner’s esoteric ideas, occult knowledge, and his
spiritualist or religious impulses, which he insists to report. Gray observes
within parentheses that the slave had “a parcel of excrescences,” which meanwhile
“have disappeared,” after Turner had mentioned these as proof of his destiny as
a prophet.<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a>
In a footnote Gray confirms Turner’s skills in “manufacturing.”<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a> Then Gray asks for the
meaning of “Spirit;” later he questions the confessant’s millenarist mission.<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a> A seemingly practical
question regarding Turner joining his band rather late is answered with
Turner’s role as a solitary prophet.<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a> Following the confession
proper, Gray asked Turner about a separate insurrection in North Carolina; and
when the defendant “denied any knowledge of it” Gray insisted and received Turner’s
statement: “I see sir, you doubt my word; but can you not think the same ideas,
and strange appearances about this time in the heaven’s [sic] might prompt
others, as well as myself, to this undertaking[?]”<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a> No, the lawyer cannot fathom
esoteric wisdom like astrology. These interventions show clearly that the
lawyer was writing down ideas he did not understand – and that confirms the
fidelity of his report. As a book, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions
</i>contain two parallel discourses, the political-juridical of Gray and the
spiritual of Turner; it certainly embodies, as Eric Sundquist analyzed, the
master/slave dialectics.<a href="#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a> In this paper, I am following
Turner’s narrative as the authentic testimony as to how he perceived himself
and his actions. It is the first person “narrative” – as Gray himself termed it
– that prompts us to trace his esoteric ideas, and not out of historical
curiosity but as testimony for the understanding of humanity of this individual
person. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">2.
The Esoteric Turner</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Nat
Turner opens his story with going “back to the days of my infancy, and even
before I was born.”<a href="#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a> What does it say about this
person’s consciousness if he derives the unity of his self from the pre-history
of his existence? It is objectively reflexive and taking a prophetic point of
view that is hypothetical and deductive. The death penalty looming, the
defendant while resigning to his fate is asked to give an account of his
motivations and agency and he reacts with a reflection on his pre-history.
Desperation and resignation, melancholy in this sense, is rooted in the reference
of the subject to his own self as though it were another person’s history. This
self-referentiality is at the same time, and has always been, the driving power
of his rebellion. A look at other instances of slave-resistance would show
(what I cannot corroborate at this point<a href="#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a>) that rebellion does not
only make slaves self-reliant, but also that self-relatedness, consciousness in
the broad sense of the term, is the root of resistance. It is what makes the
oppressed conscious of their suffering and fuels rebellion, as we can see in
Turner’s story.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Turner’s
factual point is that as a child he had knowledge of events before his birth he
could not have witnessed, from which his family concluded the child “surely
would be a prophet, as the Lord had shewn me things that had happened before my
birth.” Turner claims that this confidence carried him through adulthood: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">At
this time I reverted in my mind to the remarks made of me in my childhood, and
the things that had been shewn me – and as it had been said of me in my
childhood by those by whom I had been taught to pray, both white and black, and
in whom I had the greatest confidence, that I had too much sense to be raised,
and if I was, I would never be of any use to any one as a slave.<a href="#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The slave was predetermined not to be a slave. He
realizes it by way of recalling his early omen. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Furthermore,
his parents were convinced the boy was “intended for some great purpose”
because he had “certain marks” on his “head and breast.”<a href="#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a> The sign on the head is
most likely reminiscent of Cain’s sign, given by God to the murderer of his
brother Abel in order to protect him.<a href="#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a> This sign is evidently to
be seen as singling out its bearer for some great purpose, both in the negative
and in the positive sense. The signs on the head and the breast may perhaps
relate to the tefillin and phylactery-bags to be worn on the forehead and the
breast in Jewish tradition, which go back to earlier customs of tattooing or
cutting marks in the flesh as signs of covenant.<a href="#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a> More closely to the
Christian environment in Virginia, the marks might allude to the marks on the
right hand and forehead, of which the book of Revelation (13:16-17) refers to
as the signs of uprising against the empire of God. The prodigious character of
young Turner is also remotely reminiscent of Jesus as a child who was sought by
his parents and found in the Temple, teaching. In the Gospel it is the child
that reminds the parents that he was with his Father and that they should have
been aware of that.<a href="#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a> A further source for young
Nat’s parents to interpret the marks on the child could be popular occultist
culture.<a href="#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a>
A frequently printed and modified book by Erra Pater, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Knowledge</i>, provides a list of foretelling meanings of
such marks:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">A
mole on the forehead of a man or woman, denotes they will grow rich, and attain
to great possessions, being beloved of their friends and neighbours.</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A man or woman having a mole near the heart
upon the breast, shews them irregular, wicked and malicious.<a href="#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">A
mole on the left corner of the eye, denotes the party subject to melancholy,
and diseases that proceed therefrom.<a href="#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">It is obvious that Nat Turner in his narrative
ascribed high value to this sort of portent.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">A
further capability that Turner recounts as forming his personality is the
“fertility” of his imagination, which he exercised by “making experiments in
casting different things in moulds made of earth, in attempting at making
paper, gunpowder, and many other experiments.”<a href="#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a> Thomas Gray, as
mentioned, sensed that there was something unusual about it and commented that
he questioned the defendant about it and found him “well informed on the
subject.” From a white man’s perspective it was astonishing enough that the
black slave was versatile in various crafts. But what evidently escaped his
attention was that Turner was – in all innocence – speaking of alchemy. For casting
objects (probably of metal) in clay, as well as pottery, and making gunpowder and
paper were activities of alchemy, as long as alchemy straddled the realms of
manufacturing and magic.<a href="#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a> In this one statement, the
confessant connects imagination, prayer, and alchemy. Through these skills the
young slave gained authority among his peers and respect “by white and black,”
not the least due to the “austerity” in the conduct of his life.<a href="#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a> He became religious, was impressed
by readings from the Scripture to the effect that the Holy Spirit spoke
personally to him regularly, which confirmed his awareness to be “ordained for
some great purpose in the hands of the Almighty.”<a href="#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a> He speaks of his
influence on his fellows with an ambiguous parenthesis: “not by the means of
conjuring and such like tricks – for to them I always spoke of such things with
contempt.” So he knew such tricks, I suppose,<a href="#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a> but his magic was of a
different nature. As a grownup person, Turner explains, he realized that this
combination of gifts: prophesy, spirituality, and magic was what made him unfit
for being a slave, because he “had too much sense to … be of any use to any one
as a slave.”<a href="#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a>
Education in the narrow and in the broad sense of the term, as Frederick Douglass
would state later, “would forever unfit him to be a slave.”<a href="#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[44]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">At
this point let me make an observation regarding potential sources of
information available to Nat Turner. We should suppose that Turner and his family
probably had only shady knowledge of all sorts of written tradition. We do know
that he could read, and we also know that he had access to the Bible, even the
one with Adam Clarke’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Commentary</i>.<a href="#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[45]</span></span></span></span></a> Efforts have been made to
relate Turner’s ideas and worldview to African traditions. This would be very
important to know, for it might change our understanding of the mind of the
slaves. Unfortunately, so far the results remain vague and elusive for lack of documented
evidence. Unfortunately, any “particular African cultural antecedents that may
have shaped Nat's spiritual beliefs are impossible to discern from this vantage
point.<a name="_Ref343928244">”</a><a href="#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref343928244;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref343928244;"></span> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There certainly were African traditions of
conjuring, including those skills that I identify as alchemy like making
gunpowder. Yet, again, we have no direct evidence of Turner’s readings or
instructions of African origin.<a href="#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn47;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[47]</span></span></span></span></a> It would be particularly
helpful to know which of the many cultures that came from Africa were
specifically alive and documented in Southampton County. For the early modern Christian
tradition, which I am pursuing in this paper, I can at least point to existing
prints at the time.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Turner
runs away from his overseer and – “to the astonishment of the negroes on the
plantation” – he returns after thirty days in the woods. This is the first
allusion to his identifying with Christ (although he should have stayed for forty
days, as he later did when he stayed for six weeks in his hide out after the
massacre). Repeatedly, Turner reports of “the Spirit” speaking to him, for
instance with the well-known Bible verse that requires from the servant to obey
his master (Luke 12:47). It is at this point in the narrative that Turner
mentions a vision: “I saw white spirits and black spirits engaged in battle,
and the sun was darkened – the thunder rolled in the Heavens, and blood flowed
in streams – and I heard a voice saying, ‘Such is your luck, such you are
called to see, and let it come rough or smooth, you must surely bare it.’’’
This is a clear call for rebellion and violence. The symbolism of black and
white spirits (demons I suppose) is not easy to trace back as to sources. But
the darkened sun may refer to the Crucifixion.<a href="#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn48;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[48]</span></span></span></span></a> The role as the leader of
an insurrection is established as a divine and spiritual call, a call not for
victory but for suffering, most likely martyrdom. We should notice that Turner
is telling this as matters of fact and without reservation, not even in
hindsight. Thus he presents himself to the lawyer as the prophetical leader he
had been ever since. Consequently, also the uprising itself was prompted,
according to Turner, by a vision of “the Spirit” who announced that “the
Serpent was loosened” so that he was called to “fight against the Serpent”.<a href="#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn49;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[49]</span></span></span></span></a> Most likely Turner is appropriating
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Revelation </i>20:2-3,<a href="#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn50;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[50]</span></span></span></span></a> interpreted as the
beginning of an overturn of powers.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Turner’s
education is not only spiritual; it includes “the knowledge of the elements,
the revolution of the planets, the operation of tides, and changes of the
seasons.” In the same breath he alludes to the esoteric wisdom of understanding
“the forms of men in different attitudes” and seeing “lights of the Saviour’s
hands” related to the “cross on the Calvary for the redemption of sinners.”<a href="#_ftn51" name="_ftnref51" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn51;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[51]</span></span></span></span></a> To him the spiritual calling
and the secular knowledge are easily blended. Hence we may assume that he trained
himself in natural philosophy, which for wise men of the Renaissance and Early
Modernity included what in our time is called science and psychology. As a
result of his visions, a white man had “a cutaneous eruption, and blood ozed
[sic] from the pores of his skin, and after praying and fasting nine days, he
was healed;” that is to say the black slave started miraculous healings, a fact
that was even mentioned in the court trial.<a name="_Ref344302211"></a><a href="#_ftn52" name="_ftnref52" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn52;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref344302211;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[52]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Ref344302211;"></span> Then he organized baptisms in open
waters on the model of John the Baptist, as Hussites and other spiritual
movements had done since the era of Reformation.<a href="#_ftn53" name="_ftnref53" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn53;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[53]</span></span></span></span></a> The vision that is
mentioned immediately thereafter consists in the Spirit warning of the Serpent
at large and commanding him to take on the joke of Christ and to fight the
Serpent. Obviously he is referring to the Devil. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
captive explains that he had to take over Christ’s role because “the time was
fast approaching when the first should be last and the last should be first.” He
is evidently referring to the end of the world and the Last Judgment.<a href="#_ftn54" name="_ftnref54" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn54;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[54]</span></span></span></span></a> Turner connects the end
of times with the Parable of the Vineyard (Matt. 20:16), which also
corroborates his being the chosen one (“for many be called, but few chosen”).
This association is valid because in the Gospel reference to ‘the first and the
last’ immediately precedes Jesus’ prediction of his betrayal, death and
resurrection. Gray interrupts the talk with the question: “Do you not find
yourself mistaken now?” This cannot refer to the betrayal nor to Turner’s role
in the crime; so it obviously raises the same objection that always comes up
after a failed prediction of the end of the world. (‘You see, the end has not
come!’) Turner, however, stays within the biblical context and responds: “Was
not Christ crucified.”<a href="#_ftn55" name="_ftnref55" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn55;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[55]</span></span></span></span></a> That is to say, the
overturning of the order, the great work of the rebellious killers, is as real
as Christ’s death, and hence, Turner’s death and the end of times are equally
imminent. For our reading of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions</i>
it is crucial that Turner has also millenarist ideas that motivate him. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">What
he is about to start, the violent rebellion, Turner calls twice “the great work.”<a href="#_ftn56" name="_ftnref56" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn56;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[56]</span></span></span></span></a> The Great Work is, among
others, a term of the goal of alchemy, and it is likely that the slave had
learned this expression in his alchemical training. On the other hand, a text
by William Law commenting on Jacob Boehme uses the term in this context: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Here
</span><em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Adam</span></em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> [...] appears
[…] in Union with Christ, [...] the Second <i>Adam </i>[…]; and is to show the
absolute Necessity of His Holy Incarnation, and immaculate Sacrifice for all
Mankind, without which the great Work of our Regeneration and Reunion with </span><em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">SOPHIA</span></em><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> could
not have been wrought out to Perfection. [...] And therefore He, and even He
alone [the Second Adam], was able and sufficient to go for us and to enter into
Death, […], to bruise the Serpent’s Head, and to ascend up on high …<a href="#_ftn57" name="_ftnref57" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn57;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[57]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The expression also appears in other texts of Boehme
usually meaning the overall government of the world. For instance: “Moreover, I
considered the little Spark of Light, <i>Man</i>, what he should be esteemed
for with God, in <i>Comparison</i> of this great Work and Fabrick of Heaven and
Earth.” And: “And though this great Work in Man has remained <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hidden</i> till this very Day, yet God be
praised, it will now <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">once be Day</i>, for
the Day-spring or Morning-redness <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">breaks
forth.</i>”<a href="#_ftn58" name="_ftnref58" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn58;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[58]</span></span></span></span></a>
It is clear that, whatever the slave might have had in mind, when he calls it
the “great work” or also “the work of death”<a href="#_ftn59" name="_ftnref59" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn59;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[59]</span></span></span></span></a> he shows the metaphysical
framework with an emotional underpinning. In the following, I will make more
comparisons with the ideas of the mystic Jacob Boehme (1575-1624) because one
of the earliest biographers of Nat Turner, the abolitionist Thomas Wentworth
Higginson, mentioned in 1861 that the confession “reads quite like Jacob
Behmen.”<a href="#_ftn60" name="_ftnref60" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn60;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[60]</span></span></span></span></a>
He obviously knew that Boehme’s ideas had spread through America via the
English Quakers, as the edition quoted above testifies. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">We
are no longer surprised that an eclipse of the sun triggered his actions,
Turner narrates, as though a “seal was removed from my lips, and I communicated
the great work laid out for me to do, to four in whom I had the greatest
confidence.”<a href="#_ftn61" name="_ftnref61" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn61;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[61]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, when he recapitulates the events of the uprising he is sparing with
esoteric or spiritualist allusions, they appear – as the court sentence stated
– a cold-blooded rampage. The only moment that is remarkable is the comrades
urging their leader to “spill the first blood” – whereby it remains open
whether that was a psychological, mythical, or ritual motif.<a href="#_ftn62" name="_ftnref62" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn62;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[62]</span></span></span></span></a> Yet Turner’s narrative closes
with the words: “I am here loaded with chains, and willing to suffer the fate
that awaits me.”<a href="#_ftn63" name="_ftnref63" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn63;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[63]</span></span></span></span></a>
In themselves these words are indifferent, but in the context of Turner’s
identifying himself with Christ, we see him in front of Pilate. </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
calm, deliberate composure with which he spoke of his late deeds and
intentions, the expression of his fiend-like face when excited by enthusiasm,
still bearing the stains of the blood of helpless innocence about him; clothed
with rags and covered with chains; yet daring to raise his manacled hands to
heaven, with a spirit soaring above the attributes of man; I looked on him and
my blood curdled in my veins.<a href="#_ftn64" name="_ftnref64" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn64;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[64]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Thus the lawyer describes him and he projects his
disgust while at the same time observing the composure of the captive. We may
notice that Turner’s imitation of Christ has two sides: the one is that of the
redeemer sent to the fellow humans, the other is that of the victim of earthly
justice or injustice - a victim who bears his fate with composure and conscience
of the atrocity. When the lawyer further examines his connections with
contemporary uprisings Turner insists on the astrological condition of his acts
by suggesting that “strange appearances about this time in the heaven’s [sic] might
prompt others, as well as myself, to this undertaking.”<a href="#_ftn65" name="_ftnref65" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn65;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[65]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">3.
Turner and Melancholy</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">After
having collected evidence that Nat Turner represents the mindset of
spiritualist and esoteric thought in a class of people who are supposed to be
uneducated, it is now worth finding out whether he also represents versions of
melancholy as a state of soul or mind as it is known since the Renaissance. Of
course, I cannot give any specific source because I still do not know which
were potential readings available to Turner or those who might have instructed
him. Therefore, my selection is guided by ideas that match his attitude in his
confession. And I am primarily looking at sources close to him in time and
culture. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Let
me start with a verse that captures the nature of a melancholic person:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">God
has given me unduly<br />
In my nature melancholy.<br />
Like the earth both cold and dry,<br />
Black of skin with gait awry,<br />
Hostile mean, ambitious, sly,<br />
No love for fame or woman have I;<br />
In Saturn and autumn the fault doth lie.<a href="#_ftn66" name="_ftnref66" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn66;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[66]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">This comes from a widely quoted verse in German. What
is important to note is that a person who identifies himself as of melancholic
temper also ascribes to himself to be of violent and ambitious temperament. Of
course we should not think too much of the black skin mentioned, we cannot know
which version of melancholic typology was close to Turner. However, I would not
be surprised if I could find an English version of this verse circulating among
slaves and slaveholders. If Turner thought that black skin is one of the signs
in an analogous way as melancholy is the medical symptom of black bile (the
internal humor, influenced by Saturn, that causes a brooding mood), he must
have seen his fate as a rebel confirmed by nature. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Nicholas
of Cusa taught that “covetous melancholy […] gives rise to the most varied
pestilences in the body – usury, fraud, deceit, theft, pillage, and all the
arts by which great riches are won not by work but only by a certain deceitful craftiness,
which can never exist without doing harm to the State […]”<a href="#_ftn67" name="_ftnref67" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn67;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[67]</span></span></span></span></a> This is not the
philosophical kind of melancholy, elaborated by Marsilio Ficino,<a href="#_ftn68" name="_ftnref68" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn68;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[68]</span></span></span></span></a> but a curse that makes a
person an enemy of state. Agrippa of Nettesheim,<a href="#_ftn69" name="_ftnref69" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn69;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[69]</span></span></span></span></a> in his handbook of occult
sciences classified Saturnine people in three groups: those with imagination,
the first group, are prone to mechanical arts and can predict natural events; the
second sort is those with rational thinking who have an understanding for human
things, including medicine and politics and they tend to be revolutionaries;
and finally those with intellect who know divine secrets, angels, demons, and
God: they have religious prophetic gifts. We easily see that Turner fits all
three categories, he might have grown from the boy plagued with imagination
being trained in mechanical/magical crafts, including alchemy, to the leader of
people and rebel who believed in fulfilling the law and commandment of God
while taking on the yoke of Christ. We should not forget that ever since
Aristotle’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Problemata</i>,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>melancholy is tied with malice and
manic bouts, and that melancholy is one of the characteristics of the political
leader.<a href="#_ftn70" name="_ftnref70" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn70;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[70]</span></span></span></span></a> At the same time this
sort of melancholic person is painfully and “darkly aware of the inadequacy of
his powers of knowledge,”<a href="#_ftn71" name="_ftnref71" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn71;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[71]</span></span></span></span></a> and this would be the
explanation of his surrender after the revolt. It is the most generic
connection between melancholy and rebellion: a confluence of rage and the sense
of inadequacy. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">When
Turner narrates the aftermath of the insurrection and massacre he is
surprisingly unemotional as to his hiding and being captured. The lawyer Thomas
Gray wonders about the fact that Turner did not make any attempt to escape but
surrendered peacefully. (And as I said, this sort of comments of the note taker
usually raises a red flag as to its peculiar meaning for Turner.) Gray depicts
a contradictory character of the defendant: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">As
to his being a coward, his reason as given for not resisting Mr. Phipps, shews
the decision of his character. When he saw Mr. Phipps present his gun, he […]
thought it was better to surrender, and trust to fortune for his escape. He is
a complete fanatic, or plays his part most admirably. On other subjects he
possesses an uncommon share of intelligence, with a mind capable of attaining
any thing; but warped and perverted by the influence of early impressions. […]
The calm, deliberate composure with which he spoke of his late deeds and
intentions, the expression of his fiend-like face when excited by enthusiasm
[…].<a href="#_ftn72" name="_ftnref72" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn72;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[72]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In the eyes of the lawyer, Turner is a coward and a
realist, a fanatic or maybe only a feigned fanatic; he is intelligent but
misinformed since his youth, calm and excited by enthusiasm. For Turner there
was no need for further explanation: he had lost, that is, his fate was such. He
actually may have been a fanatic, but of the melancholic brand. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">When
his interlocutor speaks about bodily properties, like the marks on the head and
the breast, to Gray these cannot have any impact on the thought and action. What
Thomas Gray could not have known is that the quasi-mechanical connection of
bodily functions and states of the mind, in which he certainly was educated in
a world dominated by Locke’s and Hume’s epistemology, does not exist for
esoteric people. On the other hand, people living in the world of complexions,
of which melancholy is one, and in the world of demons and spirits, perceive
themselves as agents within a larger context of agency: fate, providence,
stars, humors, etc. Therefore physical properties and divine signs all
contribute to ‘who one is as a person’ and create the logic of their agency. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jacob
Boehme was one of the thinkers who systematized this natural and supernatural
world, and he was well known in many circles of the English speaking regions of
America. A collection of texts, partly by Jacob Boehme and partly from other
sources, was printed in 1688; all of them put together for the spiritual
education of common people. The compiler and probably translator was Daniel
Leeds (1651-1720).<a href="#_ftn73" name="_ftnref73" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn73;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[73]</span></span></span></span></a> He, like most promoters
of Jacob Boehme's ideas and books was connected with the Quakers. In this book,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Temple of Wisdom</i>, we find a
number of ideas that might have trickled down to the slaves in Virginia. There
we read, for instance, </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">All
War and Contention arises from the dominion of God's anger; the Warrior is a
Servant of God's anger; he is the Ax wherewith the angry Husband-man cuts up
the Thorns and Bryars from off his Ground: ... And he that suffers himself to
be made use of thereto, he serveth the anger of God ... <a href="#_ftn74" name="_ftnref74" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn74;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[74]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">This sounds like Turner’s understanding of his
mission. On the one hand, Turner was confident to execute God’s will and to
take up Christ’s yoke. On the other hand, he was also fully conscious that this
entailed martyrdom, and not such that brings to heaven but such that takes on
guilt for the sake of the political cause. He might well have been confirmed
reading the following considerations of Jacob Boehme on the temperament of
melancholy, also contained in Leed’s book: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">If
the Soul once turn aside from God, and give it self over to the obedience of
the Complexion, then all whatsoever the Stars work in the Complexion, is put in
execution, and the Devil mixeth his Imagination therewith. ... [T]here is none
among all the four Complexions, whereinto less Wickedness is introduced; for it
is always in combat against the Devil, knowing him to be very near Neighbour;
for the Darkness in his Habitation.<a href="#_ftn75" name="_ftnref75" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn75;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[75]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">In the melancholic temper, there is an ongoing fight
between God and Satan. </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
Devil is ever objecting to the Melancholy man, the haniousness [sic] of his
Sins; and thereupon seeks to perswade him there's no possibility of attaining
God's grace and favour: Therefore that it only remains, be disappearing, stab,
drown or hang himself, or murder another, so that he may gain an approach to
his Soul, otherwise neither dare, nor can touch it.<a href="#_ftn76" name="_ftnref76" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn76;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[76]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Of
course, I cannot prove that Nat Turner knew this sort of text. Nobody has ever
investigated what he might have read, besides the Bible. But the allusions he
makes in his narrative are clear indications that he knew much of spiritual
writings. As I mentioned earlier, Thomas Higginson suggested as early as 1861
that Nat Turner’s mind was germane with Jacob Boehme; but no researcher followed
this lead. I hope I made plausible that there is research ahead of us that
promises more results. The sources I have used are as obscure to a modern
reader as they were already to Thomas Gray. We cannot hold that against the
slave. On the contrary, a closer look at the life of Nat Turner’s mind will
unmask the cultural dissonance between the world of the slaves and that of the
slaveholders. As Wendell Berry stated decades ago, the wounds of the slaves
inflicted wounds on their oppressors.<a href="#_ftn77" name="_ftnref77" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn77;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[77]</span></span></span></span></a> For our understanding of
American slavery, or at least this specific case, we are called not to see
slaves are mere objects of political disasters and present-day compassion but,
rather, as subjects with intellectual and political agency. For the history of
ideas, and specifically the tradition of the temperaments and occult sciences,
we see in Nat Turner the rudiments of Renaissance ideas, which survived in a
sort of trickle down culture. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Paul
Richard Blum</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">T.J.
Higgins, S.J., Chair in Philosopy</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Loyola
University Maryland</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Department
of Philosophy</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">prblum@loyola.edu</span></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Cf. Paul Richard Blum, “American Slave Narratives as Sources of Philosophical
Anthropology. Turning First Person Stories into Philosophy,” in <i>Working
Papers in Philosophy: Registers of Philosophy</i> (Budapest, 2016),
http://fi.btk.mta.hu/images/Esem%C3%A9nyek/2016/Registers_of_Philosophy_2016/2016_07_paul_richard_blum_american_slave_narratives_as_sources_of_philosophical_anthropology.pdf.
- This study is a result of research funded by the Czech Science Foundation as
the project GA ČR 14-37038G “Between Renaissance and Baroque: Philosophy and
Knowledge in the Czech Lands within the Wider European Context”. – Thanks to
Brittany Brock for help with research. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> M.
Cooper Harriss, “‘Where Is the Voice Coming From?’ Rhetoric, Religion, and
Violence in ‘The Confessions of Nat Turner,’” <i>Soundings: An
Interdisciplinary Journal</i> 89, no. 1/2 (2006), p. 166, n. 1,. suggested to
refer to the first name Nat, rather than Turner, because that was the
slaveholder’s name. At court, the defendant was recorded as “Nat alias Nat
Turner”: Henry Irving Tragle, <i>The Southampton Slave Revolt of 1831. A
Compilation of Source Material</i>, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst,
1971, p. 221. For the sake of convenience, I will use the better-known name,
Turner, keeping in mind the ambiguity of slaves’ names.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Nat Turner, <i>The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the late insurrection
in Southampton, Va. As fully and voluntarily made to Thomas R. Gray, In the
prison where he was confined, and acknowledged by him to be such, when read
before the Court of Southampton; with the certificate, under seal of the court
convened at Jerusalem, Nov. 5, 1831, for his trial. Also an authentic account
of the whole insurrection, with lists of the whites who were murdered, and of
the negroes brought before the Court of Southampton, and there sentenced,
&c.</i>, ed. Thomas R. Gray, Thomas R. Gray, Baltimore, 1831. Online
accessible: Nat Turner, “The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the Late
Insurrection in Southampton, Va.,” <i>Documenting the American South,
Beginnings to 1920</i>, accessed April 4, 2016, http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/turner/turner.html.
– Details of the riot and the person in Herbert Aptheker, “The Event” in
Kenneth S. Greenberg (ed.), <i>Nat Turner: A Slave Rebellion in History and
Memory</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003, pp. 45–57; Herbert Aptheker,
<i>Nat Turner’s Slave Rebellion: Including the 1831 “Confessions”</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">,</span> Dover Publications, Mineola, 2012;
David F. Allmendinger, <i>Nat Turner and the Rising in Southampton County</i>,
Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2014.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
William Styron, <i>The Confessions of Nat Turner</i>, Vintage Books, New York, 1993,
Afterword to the Vintage edition, p. 441.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
William Styron, <i>Letters to My Father</i>, ed. James L. W. West, Louisiana
State University Press, Baton Rouge, 2009, p. 132. On Styron’s psychological
approach see Alfred Kazin, “The Imagination of Fact: Capote to Mailer,” in
Harold Bloom (ed.), <i>Truman Capote</i>, Bloom’s Literary Criticism, New York,
2009, pp. 23–41; pp. 32-34. On Styron and other appropriations of the Turner
story see Albert E. Stone, <i>The Return of Nat Turner: History, Literature,
and Cultural Politics in Sixties America</i>, University of Georgia Press,
Athens, 1992; and Mary Kemp Davis, <i>Nat Turner before the Bar of Judgment:
Fictional Treatments of the Southampton Slave Insurrection</i>, Louisiana State
University Press, Baton Rouge, 1999.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
William Styron, <i>Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness</i>, Random House, New
York 1990. Cf. John Milton, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Paradise Lost</i>,
I 63. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Ibid., p. 17 and pp. 44-47. On <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Darkness
Visible</i> and melancholy in Styron’s fiction cf. Samuel Coale, <i>William
Styron Revisited</i>, Twayne, Boston, 1991, p. 5.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Nate Parker, <i>The Birth of a Nation</i>, 2016,
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4196450/. Cf. Sam Tanenhaus and Nate Parker, “Nate
Parker on The Confessions of Nat Turner,” <i>Vanity Fair HWD</i>, accessed
December 15, 2016,
http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/08/nate-parker-on-the-confessions-of-nat-turner.
</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
William Styron, <i>Selected Letters of William Styron</i>, ed. Rose Styron and
R. Blakeslee Gilpin, Random House, New York, 2012, pp. 127, 142, 154, 163.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 164n.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 384n.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 21.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
See the remark that Perry Smith, one of the killers, early in life terminated
his “never earnest spiritual quest”: Truman Capote, <i>In Cold Blood: A True
Account of a Multiple Murder and Its Consequences</i>, Vintage Books, New York
1994, pp. 42f.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Patrick H. Breen, <i>The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood: A New History of the
Nat Turner Revolt</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015, especially in
chapter 1: “Signs”, pp. 19-30, from the eclipse of 12 February 1831, biblical
references, prophesy, to the skeptical response of the fellow slaves.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Donald G. Mathews, <i>Religion in the Old South</i>, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago: 1977, pp. 231–36; 235.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Albert J. Raboteau, <i>Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the
Antebellum South</i>, updated edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004,
pp. 163f.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Charles F. Irons, <i>The Origins of
Proslavery Christianity: White and Black Evangelicals in Colonial and
Antebellum Virginia</i>, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2008,
pp. 135–168.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Patrick H. Breen, “Contested Communion: The Limits of White Solidarity in Nat
Turner’s Virginia,” <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i> 27, no. 4 (2007), pp.
685–703.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Brian Ray Gabrial, “‘The Melancholy Effect of Popular Excitement’. Discourse
about Slavery and the Social Construction of the Slave Rebel and Conspirator in
Newspapers” (PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2004); Brian Gabrial, <i>The
Press and Slavery in America, 1791-1859: The Melancholy Effect of Popular Excitement</i>,
University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC, 2016.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> A
comprehensive treatment of the question in Harriss, “‘Where Is the Voice Coming
From?’” Cf. Breen, <i>The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood</i>, pp. 169–179
(Afterword).</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, title page and p. 7.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 7.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 8.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., pp. 9 and 11.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 12:</span> “The same reason that had caused
me not to mix with them for years before.”</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 18.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Stephen Howard Browne, “‘This Unparalleled and Inhuman Massacre’: The Gothic,
the Sacred, and the Meaning of Nat Turner,” <i>Rhetoric & Public Affairs</i>
3, no. 3 (2000), pp. 309–332; Eric J. Sundquist, <i>To Wake the Nations: Race
in the Making of American Literature</i>, Belknap, Cambridge, Mass., 1993, pp. 36–83:
“Nat Turner, Thomas Gray, and the Phenomenology of Slavery.”</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 7.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Cf. Paul Richard Blum, “‘I Felt So Tall Within’: Anthropology in Slave
Narratives,” <i>Annals of Cultural Studies (Roczniki Kulturoznawcze)</i> 4, no.
2 (2013), 21–39.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 9. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 7.</span> The “excrescences” Gray missed. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
“CAIN - JewishEncyclopedia.com,” accessed April 4, 2016,
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3904-cain.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
“PHYLACTERIES - JewishEncyclopedia.com,” accessed April 4, 2016,
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12125-phylacteries.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Luke 2:40-52. In Harriss’s terminology, this would be a case of biblical
embodiment: Harriss, “‘Where Is the Voice Coming From?’” </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn35" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Marks on the forehead no. 22014 and 25062 in Newbell Niles Puckett et al., <i>Popular
Beliefs and Superstitions: A Compendium of American Folklore. From the Ohio
Collection of Newbell Niles Puckett</i>, 3 vols., G.K. Hall, Boston, Mass.,
1981. Cf. Newbell Niles Puckett, <i>Folk Beliefs of the Southern Negro</i>, The
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1926, p. 204.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn36" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Erra Pater, <i>The Book of Knowledge, Treating of the Wisdom of the Ancients</i>,
Printed and sold by Peter Stewart, Philadelphia, 1801, pp. 49 and 50.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn37" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Erra Pater, <i>The Book of Knowledge, Treating of the Wisdom of the Ancients</i>,
Evert Duyckinck, New York, 1806, p. 77. The various editions deviate in
details. Erra Pater was a pseudonym of William Lilly (1602-1681); see Derek
Parker, <i>Familiar to All: William Lilly and Astrology in the Seventeenth
Century</i>, J. Cape, London, 1975), p. 88.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn38" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Turner,
<i>Confessions</i>, p. 8.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn39" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cf. William R. Newman and Lawrence M.
Principe, <i>Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of
Helmontian Chymistry</i>, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2010; H.
Stanley Redgrove, <i>Alchemy, Ancient and Modern</i>, 2nd ed., William Rider
& Son, London, 1922; David A. Katz, “An Illustrated History of Alchemy and
Early Chemistry,” 2008, http://www.chymist.com/History%20Alchemy.pdf; T.
Padmanabhan, “Dawn of Science: 6. The Arab Legacy,” <i>Resonance – Journal of
Science Education (Indian Academy of Sciences)</i> 15, no. 11 (November 2010), pp.
1009–1015; also the classic Paolo Rossi, <i>Francis Bacon: From Magic to
Science</i>, trans. Sacha Rabinovitch, Routledge, London, 1968, pp. 1–35, ch. 1
on mechanical arts, magic, and science. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn40" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 8.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn41" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 9.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn42" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
On Turner as a conjurer cf. Walter C. Rucker, <i>The River Flows On: Black
Resistance, Culture, and Identity Formation in Early America</i>, LSU Press, Baton
Rouge, 2006, pp. 182–198.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn43" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 9.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn44" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Frederick Douglass, <i>Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American
Slave</i>, ed. William Lloyd Garrison, At the Anti-Slavery Office, Boston, 1847,
p. 33.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn45" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Adam Clarke, <i>The Holy Bible, Containing the Old and New Testaments (...)
With a Commentary and Critical Notes</i>, 8 vols., Butterworth, London, 1810.
Friendly information from Rick Francis (a descendant of victims of the
massacre) in Courtland, Va., via email, August 30, 2016: “As to what writings
Nat Turner might have had access.... Sally Francis’ brother,
Nathaniel Francis, who died in 1849, inventory notes Clark’s [sic]
Commentary ($12) and ‘books’ ($5). Otherwise the estate inventories of
Salathiel Francis, Joseph Travis and Putnam Moore do not mention books.” A
photo of Turner’s Bible is at <a href="http://ead.lib.virginia.edu/vivaxtf/view?docId=uva-sc/viu01760.xml#subseries51"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;">http://ead.lib.virginia.edu/vivaxtf/view?docId=uva-sc/viu01760.xml#subseries51</span></a>
.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn46" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Rucker, <i>The River Flows On</i>, p. 197. On the merger of Christian and
African religious traditions see Melville J. Herskovits, <i>The Myth of the
Negro Past</i>, Beacon Press, Boston, 1958, ch. 7, pp. 207-206. Jakobi
Williams, “Nat Turner: The Complexity and Dynamic of His Religious Background,”
<i>Journal of Pan African Studies</i>, no. 9 (2012): pp. 113–47; 132: relates
the marks on Turner’s body to African traditions, but it turns out to be a mere
claim without any source, not even a summary reference to Puckett or
Herskovits. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn47" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref47" name="_ftn47" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn47;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[47]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Makungu M. Akinyela, “Battling the Serpent: Nat Turner, Africanized Christianity,
and a Black Ethos,” <i>Journal of Black Studies</i> 33, no. 3 (2003), pp. 255–280;
272. Vincent Harding, “Symptoms of Liberty and Blackhead Signposts: David
Walker and Nat Turner,” in Kenneth S. Greenberg (ed.), <i>Nat Turner: A Slave
Rebellion in History and Memory</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003, pp.
79–102; 82: “experiments in the ancient crafts of Africa and Asia: pottery,
paper-making, and the making of gunpowder.” </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn48" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref48" name="_ftn48" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn48;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[48]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 10. According to Harriss, “‘Where Is the Voice
Coming From?’” p. 155, this is an example of embodied, or pseudo-biblical
language in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions</i>. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn49" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref49" name="_ftn49" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn49;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[49]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 11.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn50" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref50" name="_ftn50" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn50;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[50]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> “(2)
And he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and
Satan, and bound him a thousand years, (3) And cast him into the bottomless
pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should deceive the
nations no more, till the thousand years should be fulfilled: and after that he
must be loosed a little season.” (King James Version.) Cf. Revelation 12:9.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn51" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref51" name="_ftn51" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn51;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[51]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 10.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn52" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref52" name="_ftn52" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn52;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[52]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Tragle, <i>The Southampton Slave Revolt</i>, p. 222: “That his comrades and
even he were impressed with a belief that he could by the imposition of his
hands cure disease […].” Eric Foner, ed., <i>Nat Turner</i>, Great Lives
Observed, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971, p. 35.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn53" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref53" name="_ftn53" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn53;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[53]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 11. The fact that “the white people” did not
allow them to baptize in a church is important for the church/race relation of
the time.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn54" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref54" name="_ftn54" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn54;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[54]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Ibid.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn55" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref55" name="_ftn55" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn55;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[55]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Ibid.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn56" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref56" name="_ftn56" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn56;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[56]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn57" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref57" name="_ftn57" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn57;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[57]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Jakob Böhme, <i>The Works of Jacob Behmen, the Teutonic Theosopher.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Volume II</i>, ed. William Law, Richardson, London,
1764, http://archive.org/details/worksofjacobbehm02beohuoft, figure XI, with
explanation p. 31 (separate pagination). The illustration is also available at
http://jacobboehmeonline.com/illustrations/diagram_11. On the reception of
Boehme’s magic, alchemy, etc. see Cecilia Muratori, <i>The First German
Philosopher: The Mysticism of Jakob Böhme as Interpreted by Hegel</i>, Springer,
Heidelberg, 2016, pp. 1–66.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn58" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref58" name="_ftn58" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn58;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[58]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Jakob Böhme, <i>The Works of Jacob Behmen, The Teutonic Theosopher. Volume I</i>,
ed. William Law, Richardson, London, 1764, pp. 184 and 192,
http://archive.org/details/worksofjacobbehm01beohuoft. Emphasis in the
original.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn59" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref59" name="_ftn59" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn59;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[59]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, pp. 11, 13, 14.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn60" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref60" name="_ftn60" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn60;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[60]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Thomas Wentworth Higginson, “Nat Turner’s Insurrection,” <i>The Atlantic</i>,
August 1861,
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1861/08/nat-turners-insurrection/308736/.
Foner’s reprint of this article omits the reference to Boehme and the spirits:
Foner, <i>Nat Turner</i>, p. 132.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn61" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref61" name="_ftn61" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn61;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[61]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 11.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn62" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref62" name="_ftn62" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn62;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[62]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Ibid., p. 12.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn63" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref63" name="_ftn63" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn63;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[63]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 18.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn64" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref64" name="_ftn64" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn64;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[64]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 19.</span> Cf. “</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But my chill blood is </span><span class="searchresult"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">curdled</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> in my veins:” Virgil, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aeneis</i>
V 395 f., John Dryden’s translation. </span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn65" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref65" name="_ftn65" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn65;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[65]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, p. 18.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn66" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref66" name="_ftn66" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn66;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[66]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Raymond Klibansky, Erwin Panofsky, and Fritz Saxl, <i>Saturn and Melancholy.
Studies in the History of Natural Philosophy, Religion and Art</i>, Reprint Kraus,
Nendeln, 1979 (Nelson, London, 1964), p. 117.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn67" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref67" name="_ftn67" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn67;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[67]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Ibid., p. 120.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn68" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref68" name="_ftn68" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn68;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[68]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Ibid., pp. 217–274.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn69" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref69" name="_ftn69" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn69;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[69]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 359.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn70" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref70" name="_ftn70" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn70;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[70]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Aristotle, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Problemata</i> 30, 953 a 11
ff. and 954 b 2. Greek and English text in Ibid., 18–29.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn71" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref71" name="_ftn71" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn71;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[71]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p, 360.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn72" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref72" name="_ftn72" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn72;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[72]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Turner, <i>Confessions</i>, pp. 18f.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn73" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref73" name="_ftn73" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn73;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[73]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
On Leeds see Brian Regal, “The Jersey Devil: The Real Story (Skeptical
Inquirer, Vol. 37.6, November/December 2013),” <i>CSI Center for Inquiry</i>,
accessed April 5, 2016,
http://www.csicop.org/si/show/the_jersey_devil_the_real_story.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn74" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref74" name="_ftn74" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn74;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[74]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Daniel Leeds, <i>The Temple of Wisdom for the Little World, in Two Parts. The
First Philosophically Divine, Treating of the Being of All Beeings [Sic], and
Whence Everything Hath Its Original, as Heaven, Hell, Angels, Men and Devils,
Earth, Stars and Elements. And Particularly of All Mysteries Concerning the
Soul; and of Adam before and after the Fall. Also, a Treatise of the Four
Complexions, with the Causes of Spiritual Sadness, &c. To Which Is Added, a
Postscript to All Students in Arts and Sciences. The Second Part, Morally
Divine, Contains First, Abuses Stript and Whipt, by Geo. Wither, with His
Discription of Fair Virtue. Secondly. A Collection of Divine Poems from Fr.
Quarles. Lastly, Essayes and Religious Meditations of Sir Francis Bacon,
Knight. Collected, Published and Intended for a General Good, by D.L.</i>, Bradford,
Philadelphia, 1688, pp. 80 f.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn75" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref75" name="_ftn75" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn75;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[75]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 101.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn76" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref76" name="_ftn76" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn76;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[76]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Ibid., p. 103.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn77" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref77" name="_ftn77" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn77;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">[77]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US">
Wendell Berry, <i>The Hidden Wound</i>, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1970, p. 2.</span></p>
</div>
</div>
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{page:WordSection1;}</style></p>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-28502107165857865052020-09-23T06:20:00.001-07:002021-03-24T02:38:15.788-07:00<p>
</p><h2 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US">Frederick Douglass
and Philosophy</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">By Paul Richard
Blum (Loyola University Maryland)</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Now printed: </span>Paul Richard Blum, “Frederick Douglass and Philosophy,” <i>Czech and Slovak Journal of Humanities - Philosophica</i>, no. 2 (2020): 68–79, <a href="http://csjh.upol.cz">http://csjh.upol.cz</a>. </p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Abstract</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Frederick Douglass’
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i> was intended and has been
read as a first-hand document on slavery and the power of an individual to gain
freedom. It contains a wealth of information on the structure of American
slavery and the means to overcome it. For a philosopher, the first-person narrative
also contains valuable reflections and indications on what it means to be human
in spite of, and in the face of, systematic de-humanization. In the first
place, Douglass gives indications on what constitutes human dignity, which is
contextualized in religion and the self, body and mind, altruism and morality.
Being (potentially) sold and selling one’s physical labor turns into an
instrument of liberation. The famous master-slave dialectics is depicted in
Hegelian patterns in the fight with Covey. Resistance appears as a
quasi-natural feature of being human. Therefore, this document of a Maryland
slave and fugitive can be read as a document of far-reaching topics of
philosophy that merit to be generalized. Such a reading has the effect that the
reader cannot escape by way of historicism (‘that happened to that man back
then’) but can apply the fruits of Douglass’ reflections to the understanding
of humanity as such.<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<div class="NomalafterQuote" style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US">The somewhat flippant title of my
paper, Frederick Douglass and Philosophy, can have two meanings, or even three.
The first would be: What was Douglass’ philosophy (if he had any)? The second
would be: How would philosophers situate Douglass’ writings and actions in the
great network of available philosophies? And this meaning may in part overlap
with the first, because Douglass did not produce any work that explicitly and
intentionally was meant to be a philosophical work; hence we would need to cast
a net of known philosophical methods and systems over his life and work and see
what we find. On the way we might even find particular philosophical sources
that can be highlighted as shaping his thinking and acting. This second
approach to reading Douglass philosophically has been exercised occasionally,
for instance by Frank Kirkland, Roderick Stewart, and Timothy Golden.<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Bringing
philosophy and Douglass together in this way helps one understand his role and
his personal stature and, at the same time, it puts philosophies to a test by
measuring the reasoning of an outstanding activist and witness of his times
with philosophical theories, and then probing those theories with one real
experience. Such a merger of human agency with theory is commonly called ‘practical
philosophy’ or ethics and political philosophy. Since Douglass was embedded in
the abolitionist movement,<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
even before the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative of the Life of
Frederick Douglass </i>of 1845 and ever since, it is obvious that his
production was meant to be political and moral. This abolitionist movement was
inevitably educated by Christianity and the Enlightenment – whatever the
tensions between the two might be, otherwise. Consequently, Douglass and his audience
reveal those modes of argument, understanding, theory, and plausibility.
Finding Kantianism and Christianity in Frederick Douglass is therefore like
pressing murky water out of a sponge, while it is certainly more important to find
out what it was the sponge was meant to wipe. For instance, when Douglass said:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">[i]f I do not
misinterpret the feelings and philosophy of my white fellow-countrymen
generally, they wish us to understand distinctly and fully that they have no
other use for us whatever, than to coin dollars out of our blood[,]</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">then it is obvious that he blames the
slaveholder for exploiting fellow-citizens with a mentality of alchemy, which
mysteriously turns liquid blood into malleable gold; and the abolitionist thus
throws the white citizens back into the prescientific darkness while claiming
for himself the “fundamental principles of the republic”, that is, the
French-revolutionary constitution of society.<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
But the orator is not philosophizing; he is agitating against bigotry and
injustice. That is also expressly said in the second autobiography <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">My Bondage and My Freedom</i>, when Douglass
reflects on his intellectual growth since his liberation. Commenting on the
suggestion of a friend, “Give us the facts, … we take care of the philosophy,”
he retorts: “It did not entirely satisfy me to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">narrate</i> wrongs; I felt like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">denouncing
</i>them.”<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
Narration was his originary goal and remained his method – agitation was now
his framework.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">So, if I had to
compile a book for the book series “… <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">and
Philosophy</i>” (like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Hobbit and
Philosophy</i>), I certainly would include chapters like “Was FD a Kantian?”, “FD
against Hobbes,” “The Douglass-Hegel Dialectic,”<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
“What would Aristotle say about Slavery after Reading the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>?”, or “Fear and Trembling with Douglass,” and so on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But that is not what I am planning to do. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<h1 style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">A third approach to philosophy
and Frederick Douglass</span></h1>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Therefore, I suggest a third way of
looking at “Douglass and Philosophy”, and that is reading his and other slave
narratives as documents of humanity. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">One might object
that the notion of a ‘slave narrative’ appears to enforce the claim that the
authors were slaves rather than free individuals; and the term appears to
belittle the quality of the documents.<a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, being or having been held as slaves and all the injury thereof is the very
theme of the documents in question; and ‘narrative’ is a generic term,
specifically adopted by Frederick Douglass, that covers any quality of literary
work by simply stating that the author is speaking from the first-person point
of view. In saying ‘documents,’ I mean they need to be taken as testimonies rather
than theories – that is, as primary sources for a potential philosophy of
humanity. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">When telling of
the sorrow and joy contained and expressed in slave songs, Douglass remarks in
his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">This they would
sing, as a chorus, to words which to many would seem unmeaning jargon, but
which, nevertheless, were full of meaning to themselves. I have sometimes
thought that the mere hearing of those songs would do more to impress some
minds with the horrible character of slavery, than the reading of whole volumes
of philosophy on the subject could do.<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">With an analogous method I hope to distill,
not quite a volume, but an essay of philosophy from his slave narrative, a
philosophy that does not supplant nor suppress the original intent of his
writing but makes his work philosophically understandable. But immediately one
has to ask: what is ‘philosophical’ and ‘understandable’? Here I suggest reducing
the philosophical question from the wide net of influences and traditions and
from the variety of philosophical disciplines and methods to that of
philosophical anthropology. The lead question is now: What does Douglass’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i> say about humanity? My weak
justification for that approach is the recurrence of the notion of “human
nature” in the later elaborations of his autobiography, when from the
comparatively terse narration of the major events of his life Douglass ventured
into didactic, propagandistic, and political aims of his view on his “Life and
Times”.<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
In the prefatory letter to his second autobiography, <i>My Bondage and My
Freedom</i> of 1855, he states: “<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">I
have never placed my opposition to slavery on a basis so narrow as my own
enslavement, but rather upon the indestructible and unchangeable laws of human
nature, every one of which is perpetually and flagrantly violated by the slave
system.”<a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
Most importantly, introducing the pivotal episode of the fight with the
slave-breaker Covey (more about it below), Douglass emphasizes its
anthropological significance: “the change in my condition was owing to causes
which may help the reader to a better understanding of human nature, when
subjected to the terrible extremities of slavery.”<a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
Again, concluding the report on this “turning point” he states: </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">I WAS A MAN NOW. It
recalled to life my crushed self-respect and my self-confidence, and inspired
me with a renewed determination to be A FREEMAN. A man, without force, is
without the essential dignity of humanity. Human nature is so constituted, that
it cannot honor a helpless man, although it can pity him;
and even this it cannot do long, if the signs of power do not arise.<a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Later, in chapter 19, we read: “It is
the interest and business of slaveholders to study human nature, with a view to
practical results, and many of them attain astonishing proficiency in
discerning the thoughts and emotions of slaves.”<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
Aristotle would have been pleased reading this, for he had established that the
interest of the master and that of the slave coincide: “the union of natural
ruler and natural subject [exist] for the sake of security </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-ascii-font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: Georgia;">(</span><span lang="EN-US">for he that can foresee with his mind is naturally ruler and
naturally master, and he that can do these things with his body is subject and
naturally a slave; so that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">master and
slave have the same interest</i>).”<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
It would be worth considering whether or not Aristotle, too, was saying that
with irony. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">In other words,
when revisiting his own life and story, Douglass became aware that human nature
is the thread that holds the events together and also that human nature ties the
slave experience in discordant unison together with both the slaveholders and
his abolitionist readers. If addressing humanity counts as a philosophical
enterprise, then philosophy may even be acknowledged as Douglass’s “authorial
intention,”<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a>
at least in his later works. </span></p>
<h1 style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Slave narratives and philosophy</span></h1>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">When I suggest reading the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative </i>as a representative of the
literary genre known as American Slave Narrative philosophically, I am aware
that this is not a philosophical but a literary genre that comprises the
following components: it reports in first person the life of a slave in North
America from around the Civil War (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1861-1865) until the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century.
Many of these slave narratives were put down in writing not by the slaves
themselves but by a helpful person, many of whom were white Protestants. It is
striking that many slave narratives have a woman as a hero. All those stories
were narrated and published with an abolitionist agenda, that is to say, with
the goal in mind to support abolition of slavery in North America through
exposing the cruelty and injustice of slavery with personal examples. The first
person perspective is therefore a crucial literary tool; rhetorical tropes
include vividness of storytelling, pathos, details, and also exaggeration. The
rhetorical outlook does not disparage the content; on the contrary, the note
takers of the narratives, if not the authors themselves, thought it most
compelling to have the people speak for themselves. They intended to impress
their audience for the sake of the cause of anti-slavery. Nevertheless, we as
readers who are no longer the target audience may well profit from the first
person perspective by taking seriously what the speakers bring forward about their
life and experience. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Some of the slave
narratives are so eloquent, most conspicuously that of Harriett Jacobs, that
doubts of their authenticity were raised.<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a>
Also an early reaction to Frederick Douglass’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i> by one Mr. Thompson flatly denied that the former slave
could have “some knowledge of the rules of grammar, could write so correctly.”
However, faced with the factual existence of the book, the accuser surmises,
“to make the imposition at all creditable, the composer has labored to write it
in as plain a style as possible.” Whereas Douglass responds with a proud “Frederick
the Freeman is a very different person from Frederick the Slave,” we may ponder
the contortion made by the slanderer: an impostor pretending to be an
illiterate slave must have played to be a simpleton to the effect that any
factual inaccuracy will unmask the forgery. This is where Douglass places his
wedge: all alleged falsehoods are true, precisely because the events are
outrageous; hence the narrative is as authentic as its author.<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
We should pay attention to the fact that Douglass does not bother explaining
how it was possible for him to write, and in an elaborate oratory at that, for
that is all in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>;<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>he rather emphasizes the very message
of the book that makes it a testimony of philosophical anthropology: “You have
seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.”<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a>
As a teacher I would say, Mr. Thompson, you haven’t done the reading! We should
also not forego another paradox in Mr. Thompson’s accusation in that he precisely
fulfilled the abolitionists’ expectation of the target audience in assuming
that a former slave cannot possibly have erudition. As Douglass’s friends
advised him: “Better have a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">little </i>of
the plantation manner of speech than not; ‘tis not best that you seem too
learned.” Authenticity means the same both for friend and the foe of slavery;
but for Douglass, the slave narrator, it means his self: “I must speak just the
word that seemed to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">me</i> the word to be
spoken by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">me</i>.”<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a>
Little or no ‘plantation,’ ‘plain’ or rhetorical – philosophy is a speech act. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">With this
observation we enter the problem of the reliability of such slave narratives,
both as to details and to the general direction of the plot. These are
questions that can only be addressed for each specific text. But the general
hermeneutical principles of reading historical documents apply. To put it
shortly: if something is unusual, it is probably authentic and hence deserves
special attention. On the other hand, recurring motifs and themes indicate
recurring experiences. For instance, if many slave narratives state that the
slave is ignorant of his or her date and place of birth, then in an individual
text this may be used in a tropical manner; however, it has become a trope
because, factually, most slaves do not know their birth dates. In that sense,
this trope is worth considering under a particular perspective. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">The perspective of
my study of American slave narratives is nevertheless that of philosophy.
Regardless of the specific body of sources, the philosophical question I am
pursuing is that of philosophical anthropology: what does it mean to be human? In
ordinary philosophical anthropology, the answer is derived from philosophical
tenets such as the body-soul compound (man is an animal with reason) and from
metaphysical hypostases (man is the intermediary level between pure spirits and
matter). Sometimes a philosophical anthropology is based on the life and
existence of humans and refers to their common way of behaving (man is a social
animal, humanity equals existence, etc.). However, it occurred to me that –
with the help of slave narratives – one could suspend the answer to the
question: “What does it mean to be human?” and observe humans asserting their
humanness. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Methodologically
speaking, the task is not to apply theoretical anthropology to a given group of
human beings. For instance, assuming that humans are social animals, one could
find realizations of social patterns in any kindergarten, or the emergence of
solidarity in a coalmine. Rather, since philosophical anthropology is
philosophy in the first place, it has to find its object of study first and
then elevate it to the level of abstraction at the extent of which the concepts
build themselves on a level that does not apply merely to the empirical object
of study but to the essence of it, that is, to the essential properties of
being human.<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a> In
our context that requires avoiding to project any known philosophical system on
Douglass and, rather, finding the philosophy he conveys in his writings. Slave
narratives are utterly contingent products of individual human beings. But
these human beings speak about their being human, even and preeminently when
they speak about pain, sex, hunger, or gratification. They speak to the
audience with the intent to assert their being humans and therefore their being
exempt of slavery. The latter part is to be taken for granted, today. The first
part, the assertion to be humans, is a possible source of philosophical
anthropology. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">More radically
speaking: I suggest approaching philosophical anthropology from outside
humanity, namely from a point of view as though humanity were not something
known. An account of philosophical anthropology from outside humanity also
entails to philosophize from outside philosophical methods, provided we know of
human nature predominantly from philosophical definitions of humanness. The insistence
of the autobiographer and the zeal of the abolitionist show pathways to
understanding humanity philosophically from sources that are not intended to be
philosophical; at the same time, they show that humanity may be captured at
those points where humanity is questioned or outright denied. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Denial of humanity
is, by all standards, one common denominator of slavery; even the slaveholders
do not deny that. At times, to be human is denied explicitly, sometimes,
performatively. Therefore, it is appropriate for an abolitionist to quote the
battle cry of slaves: “Am I not a Man and a Brother?” as it had circulated in
early 19<sup>th</sup>-century England.<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a>
But the easy answer from the slaveholder was: “No!” Therefore we need to find a
more complex response in the slave narratives. As a matter of fact, slaves like
the early Douglass rarely thematized their being humans, but they asserted it
in the actions they narrated. This is where philosophical interpretation
starts. As 20<sup>th</sup>-century philosophical anthropology teaches,<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a>
to be human means to position oneself in the world with fellow humans. However,
that is only an elementary feature of humanness; it becomes philosophy only when
analyzed and interpreted philosophically. Every human assesses environment and
experience, but that turns into philosophy when it is interpreted as the peculiar
agency that characterizes a human being. We also can safely say that it is this
sort of anthropology that defines humans as essentially “eccentric,” as Helmuth
Plessner did. Consequently it also defines humanity as a non-given: the essence
of being human consists in questioning one’s own humanity. For assessing the
world and fellowship amounts to taking them as ‘given’ but not for granted – after
all, granted by which authority and to whom? </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">This is why I
suggest reading testimonies of humans who, by definition, were denied humanity.
Obviously, the first person (the I) is the starting point of any investigation
into human nature. This has been so at least since Augustine’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions</i>. In our case, the first
person is the slave speaking of himself or herself. While the narrative remains
subjective, so to speak, the message can be philosophically objectified insofar
as I, the reader, am not the subject of the story. However, as we will see in
the case of Frederick Douglass, the author of a slave narrative objectifies
experience in search of human dignity so that we as readers are factually
invited to philosophize about slave humanity. This is why the self-awareness
that the narrator gains in a narrative converges with understanding the
philosophical nature of humanity.<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">As I mentioned, of
the three versions of Frederick Douglass’ autobiography, the second and third
turned into elaborate books against the institution of slavery that
increasingly departed from the sheer telling of events in favor of readymade interpretations
of how the audience, the abolitionists, were to understand them. The author
increasingly ‘processed’ his experiences. Nevertheless the brute facts that he
tells of his life as a slave give enough material to interpret philosophically.
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">While reading
through Douglass and many other narratives, a list of recurring themes builds
itself. Here I may mention just a few: naming, home, religion, sex, property,
and resistance. Whatever the slaves deemed worth telling can be taken to be
essential for their understanding of themselves. Other things surprise the
reader with some literary experience by their absence: slaves lack most early
childhood memories (while being aware of this as a grave deficiency); they also
rarely express consciousness of time in all forms: elapsing time, future, or
history. The changes of seasons are structuring elements of their lives, as are
the changes of their masters – however, as far as I see, without any temporal
index. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">In a nutshell,
what emerges from reading slave narratives that constitutes a philosophical
anthropology? A person is in search to affirm his/her identity with the help of
names, rudiments of family relations, masters, and those events that prove
him/her an agent. Religion, rarely within any denominational frame, is the
immediate and defining resource of meaning, consolation, hope, and
justification. Home is virulent through its absence; it is felt as a loss and a
longing. Consequently, to be ‘at home’ and to be ‘at peace with God’ converge.
Religion is the virtual home of humans. Family equally exerts an influence on
the individual by way of endangerment and as a virtual bond that overcomes the
gritty reality. To be sold ‘down the river’ does not only entail deterioration
of work conditions, it is the effective severance of human bonds. As unreal and
ideal as the home is, so is family that for which it is worth longing,
fighting, or suffering. Childhood, family bonds, and home constitute humanness by
way of want. Sexual relationships are worth mentioning only as sexual slavery,
that is, the exploitation by the slave owners. Any precariousness can be turned
into a lever of resistance; that is also true with sex. Harriet Jacobs, for
instance, deliberately accepts the courtship of a freeman, just to snub her
master and to frustrate his adulterous passes. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Frederick Douglass’s
account of the role of religion in slavery is exemplary, expressing the
enlightened perspective of an abolitionist. He commented upon the scarce
permission for slaves to observe the Christian holidays:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">I believe them to
be among the most effective means in the hands of the slaveholder in keeping
down the spirit of insurrection.<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="EN-US">He
sees religious feasts as “safety-valves”<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a>
for the suppressed spirits of the slaves. On the other hand, the secret
meetings in which he discussed with fellow slaves the Scripture were at the
same time means of education and – within his narrative – the seed of
self-liberation. Many slave owners practiced religious apartheid: they
effectively segregated salvation. In showing such blatant inconsistency they
spurned the craving for the transcendent. From Douglass’ account it is obvious
that for the slave, critique of religion was not within reach; it appears to be
a post-liberation achievement, as is the case for Douglass himself. Upon
writing his autobiography he was able to observe that “after his conversion, [his
master] found religious sanction and support for his slaveholding cruelty.”<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a>
As a slave he ran twice a Sabbath school for the fellow slaves to learn “to
read the will of God,” as he whimsically explains, and he was not ashamed of
ascribing the beginning of his self-liberation to the use of a magic root,
which he obtained from a wise friend.<a href="#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">On the theme of
naming as an essentially negative experience Douglass reported:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">The slave is a
human being, divested of all rights – reduced to the level of a brute – a mere “chattel”
in the eye of the law … – his name, which the “recording angel” may have
enrolled in heaven, among the blest, is impiously inserted in a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">master’s ledger, </i>with horses, sheep, and
swine.<a href="#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="EN-US">In
this theoretical statement, Douglass locates the function of name between
property, law, and heaven. He takes for granted that a human being has a name,
that the individuality of the person must have a guardian, for instance an
angel, and that a name goes beyond bookkeeping. Let us assume the slaveholder
knows all that. This means that the denial of a personal name denies humanity
to a chattel-slave – ergo, a name is what makes up a human being.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Without engaging
in Aristotle’s famous definition of slaves as ‘tools with a soul’, it is
obvious that slaves were a specific kind of property, closer to domesticated
animals than to dead tools. It happens, but mostly in jest, that modern people
give utilities a name (especially cars, or very important devices); but to name
a slave entails the paradox of denying and recognizing the humanity of a slave.
So it is intuitively clear that the denial of a proper name instrumentalizes
the slave, while imposing a name on him or her is a second rate acknowledgment
of the status of the slave, superior to any tool, but on par with a pet or
livestock.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">It is therefore
possible to speculate that African slaves, as they appeared in the life of
farmers in America, were immediately welcome as labor force, of course, but at
the same time perceived to be livestock. On livestock René Girard says: “The
domestication of animals requires that men keep them in their company and treat
them, not as wild animals, but as if they were capable of living near human
beings and leading a quasi-human existence.”<a href="#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a>
A very similar structure occurred in American slavery: the Africans inevitably
lived close to their masters so that they could not possibly be treated just as
tools; rather, they had to be granted a quasi-human level of life. One move to
keep the difference indelible was to deny the ownership of a name. It is also
intuitively obvious that this paradox of closeness at a reinforced distance made
the slave prone to victimization in the Girardian sense; but that is not at
issue here. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">We can glean here the
importance of names on the anthropological level. The first thing that should
be noted is that all slave narratives awkwardly refer to slaves not plainly by
their names (“there was Jack”, or “Jim”) but with the epithet “a slave named
Jack.” It seems to have been wired in the grammar of slave narrative that names
are always arbitrarily given and hence do not naturally and necessarily name
one unique individual. Jack as a person cannot be a slave; the topic of the
story is not Jack but the slave who happens to have that name.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Frederick Douglass
changed his names haphazardly, and eventually accepted one suggested
incidentally by a friend. Beyond the more sophisticated mechanisms of naming
and necessity, we may state that contingency and fortuitousness come to the
forefront in slave narratives. Interestingly, Frederick Douglass does not spend
much time explaining the first occasions when he changed his name; he simply
states in a footnote that at some point after his escape, he had changed his
name from Frederick Bailey to Johnson.<a href="#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a>
He then explains that he had inherited the name Bailey from his parents, but he
dropped the additional middle names that were given to him by his mother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Immediately after his departure from
Baltimore, Frederick called himself Stanley – obviously a simple disguise. Then
he picked the name Johnson, which incidentally was also that of the couple that
received him in New Bedford. Since this name was all too common, he asked his
host to find him a new name, or rather, he “gave Mr. Johnson the privilege” to
do so: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Mr. Johnson had
just been reading the ‘Lady of the Lake’ [a poem by Sir Walter Scott], and at
once suggested that my name be ‘Douglass.’ From that time until now I have been
called ‘Frederick Douglass;’ and as I am more widely known by that name than by
either of the others, I shall continue to use it as my own.<a href="#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0cm;"><span lang="EN-US">Douglass,
as a gifted writer, creates the punchline that emphasizes the claim that his
name is what <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">he actively </i>adopts rather
than being the object of adoption. A few lines earlier Douglass emphasizes that
this privilege of naming did not extend to his first name: “I must hold onto
that [first name], to preserve a sense of my identity.” It is surprising that
Douglass underlined the philosophical notion of personal identity that is secured
by a first name in the first autobiography only, whereas he emphasized the
heroic “virtues of the Douglas of Scotland” in the second and third
autobiographies.<a href="#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">In this context,
we may savor the irony with which Douglass countered the criticism of an early
reader, the already mentioned Mr. A. C. C. Thompson, who doubted the
narrative’s author’s identity by stating he had known him as Frederick Bailey.
Douglass retorted: “You have completely tripped up the heels of your proslavery
friends, and laid them flat at my feet. You have done a piece of anti-slavery
work, which no anti-slavery man could do.” For the slanderer had
unintentionally confirmed the truthfulness of the narrative and the authority
of the narrator.<a href="#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a>
This response and counter-response shows in a nutshell the importance of
authorship for its impact on the audience. While the first name establishes the
self of the person during and beyond slavery, the inherited as well as the
‘given’/chosen penname corroborates the truth of the narrated facts. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">The first name is
the person. Everything else may be an add-on. Speaking of pictures and exterior
qualifications, Douglass said in a lecture on pictures (3 December 1861) that the
Catholic Church uses “symbolical representations.” “Remove from the church of
Rome her cunning illusions […] and her magical and entrancing power over men
would disappear.” And as an example he mentions: “Take the cross from before
the name of the archbishop – and he is James or John like the rest of us.”<a href="#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a>
For a former slave, to be ‘like the rest of us’ means all the world; that’s
what is in a name. Although it might lead astray from the main purpose of this
essay, a brief thought on Douglass’s portraits is in order. As the editors of
the book of portraits state, he was the most photographed man of 19<sup>th</sup>-century
America. The easy explanation for this is given in the just-quoted lecture in
which Douglass says with a hint of irony, “if an author’s face can possibly be
other than fine looking, the picture must be in the book, or the book be
considered incomplete.” (Let us be reminded that at his time, an African face
was certainly not ‘fine looking’ to everyone.) He even adds, just to complete
the self-mockery, a quotation from Lord Byron saying that “a man always looks
dead when his Biography is written” and adds: “The same is even more true when
his picture is taken.”<a href="#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a>
But that would not explain the effort of publishing one’s autobiography. In a
similar lecture on pictures (ca. 1865), Douglass declares with authority:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Again the books that
we write and the speeches that we make – what are they but extensions,
amplifications and shadows of ourselves, the peculiar elements of our
individual manhood? </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">He summarizes his theory that human
speech is the very humanity and personality of the speaker: “whatever may be
the text, man is sure to be the sermon.”<a href="#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a>
Thus, I hope, the digression on self-portraits comes full circle: having and
defending a personal name converges with first-person testimony – and with the
mere possibility to reach the audience. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Frederick
Douglass, with a keen eye for human nature, has written a monument to slave
resistance in the description of his standoff with his master. Let us remind
ourselves that for Douglass’s fellow slaves it was “considered as being bad
enough to be a slave </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 3pt; line-height: 200%;">; </span><span lang="EN-US">but to be a poor man’s slave was deemed a disgrace
indeed,” because slaves were trained to see themselves ‘transferring’ the
personal value of their master upon themselves.<a href="#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a>
To become conscious of the derivative nature of the self was an important step
towards inner emancipation. Hence, to despise a slave owner could of itself be
an act of rebellion long before any attempt at violence or evasion could only be
envisioned. This is the background against which we should read Douglass’s
brawl with Mr. Covey, as narrated in the tenth chapter.<a href="#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a>
He alerts his reader about the importance of the event: “You have seen how a
man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.”<a href="#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a>
Of course, it was the individual slave Frederick who was ‘made a man’, and
there may be implications regarding slave masculinity, but the event is also
symbolic as it depicts an essential feature of being a man in the sense of
being human. Later, as I quoted above, he extended the meaning of this fight to
the nature of humanity. Still, I am not claiming to offer an exhaustive
interpretation; rather, this event that has been recognized by a vast
literature as emblematic is just a sample of how philosophy can be drawn from a
narrative.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">As Mr. Covey, the
slave-breaker, tried to whip Douglass, “[h]e held on to me, and I to him.” The
slave manages to get at the master’s throat “causing the blood to run”. (71)
This standoff, I think, is crucial. The first slave who happened to pass by
tried to help his master, but was kicked off by Douglass, which had the almost
comical effect that Covey’s “courage quailed” and he asked the slave if he “meant
to persist in his resistance”.<a href="#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a>
What a question! The next slave flatly refused to interfere, using the argument
that he was not hired “to help whip” another slave. So we have the violent
defeat of one slave and the legalistic opposition of another surrounding the
stalemate. This is the point at which the slave breaker gives up “saying that
if I had not resisted, he would not have whipped me half so much.” Douglass
adds immediately that Covey had not whipped him at all. Covey becomes
ridiculous through his childish after-threat of tormenting only “half so much”
leaving it open what the other half would have looked like.<a href="#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">What Covey must
have realized without understanding was the definite turn of superiority. In
Douglass’s words: “he had drawn no blood from me, but I had from him.”<a href="#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a>
The brawl made it physically visible that the master was a coward and the slave
‘a man’. We should notice that Douglass did not beat his master; the standoff
was all he needed to assert his position: when two people get even they may
return to their natural humanity. As Lewis Gordon observed: “The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">physical</i> struggle dragged Covey into a
moment of equilibrium; it was a point at which the only way for any of them to
survive was by moving <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">upward</i>.”<a href="#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a>
That is, the impasse opened the way back to humanity. The slave-breaker’s fault
was not violence as such but the inherent cowardice that consists in denying a
fellow human a chance to be human. Therefore it was sufficient for the slave to
exert as much violence as needed to show equality on the level of physical
competition. Once again, what broke Covey’s ability to subdue Douglass was the
confluence of three types of resistance: the non-fatal violent back fighting,
the physical defeat of one slave by another, and the rational verbal defiance
of another slave. These might be the major components of all and any resistance
and rebellion. We should not be surprised seeing Douglass summarize the meaning
of this moment in a hymnal religious tone: “I felt as I never felt before. It
was a glorious resurrection, from the tomb of slavery, to the heaven of
freedom.”<a href="#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[44]</span></span></span></span></a>
The restoration of the human essence is expressed, if not caused, by the act of
resistance. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Later, Douglass
concluded that resistance as such might also persuade slaveholders to renounce
on slavery by appealing to their conscience when they learn to perceive slaves
as not voluntarily submitting to their control, thus breaking the vicious
circle in which slaves admit to being inferior through being submissive.<a href="#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[45]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, I think this is not a moral appeal but one that is rooted in the
structure of self-assertion. “I did not hesitate to let it be known of me, that
the white man who expected to succeed in whipping, must also succeed in killing
me.” This concluding remark to the Covey episode<a href="#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[46]</span></span></span></span></a>
may be read as a challenge, but it actually says that slavery (being whipped)
is the negation of humanity (being killed). Hence resistance may be just, may
be moral, may be a psychological urge, a habit, a duty, or a last resort – in
the anthropological sense it is the feature of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">being non-denied to exist</i>. In Douglass’s terms it is a resurrection
before death. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">This brings us to
general conclusions. Religion, onomastic identity, and resistance take on very
strange forms on the level of slavery; and it is this we can learn from the
slave narratives and the facts they convey. As we saw, critique of religion
requires religious freedom. We may also state that onomastic identity is an
absolute requirement of being human, so much that it does <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">de facto</i> not depend on a legitimate name-giver. Ultimately humans
are baptized as wanderers on this earth. And resistance and rebellion? In slave
narratives we see that morality is not a condition of being human; it comes
only after humanity ceases being questioned. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US">Reading Frederick
Douglass’ autobiography as a non-disciplinary philosophical text yields
philosophical insights that are not standard but that are in search for
philosophical categories that create a frame of understanding. Even if authors
of slave narratives had had an academic education in philosophy, they would
have set priorities very much at odds with the top ranking philosophical
questions in the schools. Since they had been factually prevented from academic
instruction, they also were exonerated from rebelling against the mainstream.
Their rebellion was existentially human – and in that sense it was practical
philosophy. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Anadolu-Okur, Nilgün. <i>Dismantling
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Andrews, William L. <i>To Tell a Free
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Boxill, Bernard R. “Douglass Against
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">———. “The Fight with Covey.” In <i>Existence
in Black: An Anthology of Black Existential Philosophy</i>, edited by Lewis R.
Gordon, 273–90. New York: Routledge, 1997.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="EN-US">———. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia;">“Two
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">———. “Lecture on Pictures.” In <i>Picturing
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">———. <i>Life and Times of Frederick
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">———. “Pictures and Progress.” In <i>Picturing
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Grene, Marjorie. “Positionality in
the Philosophy of Helmuth Plessner.” <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i> 20, no. 2
(1966): 250–77.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Griffiths, Julia, ed. <i>Autographs
for Freedom</i>. Vol. [2]. Auburn; Rochester: Alden, Beardsley; Wanzer,
Beardsley, 1854.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Jacobs, Harriet A. <i>Incidents in
the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself</i>. Edited by Jean Fagan Yellin.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia;">Kohn, Margaret. “Frederick
Douglass’s Master-Slave Dialectic”, <i>The Journal of Politics</i>, 67, No. 2
(May, 2005), 497-514.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Levine, Robert S. “Identity in the
Autobiographies.” In <i>The Cambridge Companion to Frederick Douglass</i>,
edited by Maurice S. Lee, 31–45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">McGary, Howard, and Bill E. Lawson. <i>Between
Slavery and Freedom: Philosophy and American Slavery</i>. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1992.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Plessner, Helmuth. <i>Die Stufen des
Organischen und der Mensch: Einleitung in die philosophische Anthropologie</i>.
Berlin: de Gruyter, 1928.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Robertson, Teresa, and Philip Atkins.
“Essential vs. Accidental Properties.” In <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy</i>, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2016., 2016.
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/essential-accidental/.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Scheler, Max. <i>Die Stellung des
Menschen im Kosmos.</i> Darmstadt: Reichl, 1928.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">———. <i>The Human Place in the Cosmos</i>.
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2009.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Stauffer, John. “Douglass’s
Self-Making and the Culture of Abolitionism.” In <i>The Cambridge Companion to
Frederick Douglass</i>, edited by Maurice S. Lee, 12–30. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2009.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Stepto, Robert B. “Narration,
Authentication, and Authorial Control in Frederick Douglass’ <i>Narrative</i>
of 1845.” In <i>Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Authoritative
Text, Contexts, Criticism</i>, edited by William L. Andrews and William S.
McFeely, 146–57. New York: Norton, 1996.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Stewart, Roderick M. “The Claims of
Frederick Douglass Philosophically Considered.” In <i>Frederick Douglass: A
Critical Reader</i>, edited by Bill E. Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland, 145–72.
Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1999.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Stuckey, Sterling. “‘My Burden
Lightened’: Frederick Douglass, the Bible, and Slave Culture.” In <i>African
Americans and The Bible. Sacred Texts and Social Textures</i>, edited by
Vincent L. Wimbush, 251–65. New York: Continuum, 2000.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Truth, Sojourner. <i>Narrative of
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State of New York, in 1828</i>. Edited by Olive Garrison Gilbert. Boston:
Printed for the author [J. B. Yerrinton and Son], 1850.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Whyte, Iain. <i>Scotland and the
Abolition of Black Slavery, 1756-1838</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
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Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US">Yellin, Jean Fagan. “Written By
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(November 1981): 479–86.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> This study is a result of research funded by the Czech Science Foundation
as the project GA ČR 14-37038G «Between Renaissance and Baroque: Philosophy and
Knowledge in the Czech Lands within the Wider European Context»</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Timothy J. Golden, “From Epistemology to Ethics: Theoretical and
Practical Reason in Kant and Douglass,” <i>Journal of Religious Ethics</i> 40,
no. 4 (2012): 603–628; Frank M. Kirkland, “Enslavement, Moral Suasion, and
Struggles for Recognition: Frederick Douglass’s Answer to the Question - ‘What
Is Enlightenment?,’” in <i>Frederick Douglass: A Critical Reader</i>, ed. Bill
E. Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1999),
243–310; Roderick M. Stewart, “The Claims of Frederick Douglass Philosophically
Considered,” in <i>Frederick Douglass: A Critical Reader</i>, ed. Bill E.
Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1999),
145–72 (with methodical observations, 145-148). Cf. also the “Introduction” to
this volume by Lawson and Kirkland, pp. 1-17, and Howard McGary and Bill E.
Lawson, <i>Between Slavery and Freedom: Philosophy and American Slavery</i>
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Nilgün Anadolu-Okur, <i>Dismantling Slavery: Frederick Douglass,
William Lloyd Garrison, and Formation of the Abolitionist Discourse, 1841-1851</i>
(Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 2016). Testimonies are available
in the many volumes of Frederick Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers</i>,
ed. John W. Blassingame et al., Series 1-3 (New Haven [Conn.]: Yale University
Press, 1999). Cf. John Stauffer, “Douglass’s Self-Making and the Culture of
Abolitionism,” in <i>The Cambridge Companion to Frederick Douglass</i>, ed.
Maurice S. Lee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 12–30.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, “Excerpt” of a speech May 1853, in Julia
Griffiths, ed., <i>Autographs for Freedom</i>, vol. [2] (Auburn; Rochester:
Alden, Beardsley; Wanzer, Beardsley, 1854), 251–255; 252f. Also as “A Nation in
the Midst of a Nation: An Address delivered in New York (11 may 1853)” in
Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers</i>, Series 1, vol. 2, pp. 423-440,
quotation on p. 425 .</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, “My Bondage and My Freedom,” in <i>Autobiographies</i>,
The Library of America: 68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), chap. XXIII,
367.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Actually, this title is already taken: Cynthia Willett, “The
Master-Slave Dialectic: Hegel vs. Douglass,” in <i>Subjugation and Bondage:
Critical Essays on Slavery and Social Philosophy</i>, ed. Tommy Lee Lott
(Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998), 151–70.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> So Nilgün Anadolu-Okur in her presentation at this conference; she
suggested to call these works ‘autobiographies.’ Structural observations in Robert
B. Stepto, “Narration, Authentication, and Authorial Control in Frederick
Douglass’ <i>Narrative</i> of 1845,” in <i>Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism</i>, ed. William L. Andrews
and William S. McFeely (New York: Norton, 1996), 146–57; William L. Andrews, <i>To
Tell a Free Story: The First Century of Afro-American Autobiography, 1760-1865</i>
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), chap. 1, 1–31:"The First
Century of Afro-American Autobiography: Notes towards a Definition of a Genre;
chapt. 4, 97-166: “The Performance of Slave Narrative in the 1840s.”</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass,
an American Slave, Written by Himself,” in <i>Autobiographies</i>, The Library
of America: 68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), chap. II, 23 f. – I will
quote the three autobiographies from this edition with citation of chapters so
that quotations may be found in any other edition. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> These were the first editions of the three autobiographies: Frederick
Douglass, <i>Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</i>
(Boston: Anti-slavery Office, 1845); Frederick Douglass, <i>My Bondage and My
Freedom: Part I - Life as a Slave, Part II - Life as a Freeman</i> (New York:
Miller, Orton & Mulligan, 1855); Frederick Douglass, <i>Life and Times of
Frederick Douglass</i> (Hartford, Conn.: Park Pub., 1884).</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Bondage,” 105. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, chap. XVI, 270; cf. Frederick Douglass, “Life and Times
of Frederick Douglass Written by Himself,” in <i>Autobiographies</i>, The
Library of America: 68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), chap. XVI, 575. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Bondage,” chap. XVII, 286. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. XIX, 307.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Aristotle, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Politics</i> I,
1252a, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">translated by H. Rackham</span><span lang="EN-US"> (http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg035.perseus-eng1:1.1252a)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">;</span><span lang="EN-US"> more literally: “… the same
[thing] benefits the master and the slave”.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Stewart, “The Claims of Frederick Douglass Philosophically
Considered”, 148.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Harriet A. Jacobs, <i>Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl:
Written by Herself</i>, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1987); Jean Fagan Yellin, “Written By Herself: Harriet Jacobs’
Slave Narrative,” <i>American Literature</i> 53, no. 3 (November 1981): 479–86.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers. Series Two:
Autobiographical Writings</i>, ed. John W. Blassingame, John R. McKivigan, and
Peter P. Hinks, vol. 1: Narrative (New Haven [Conn.]: Yale University Press,
1999), 154 f. and 158; the exchange is also in Frederick Douglass, <i>Narrative
of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism</i>,
ed. William L. Andrews and William S. McFeely (New York: Norton, 1996), 88–96.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 60.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Bondage,” chap. XXIII, 367. The context is the same as
in “we will take care of the philosophy,” quoted above. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> On the problems of this terminology, which is not topical here, see
Teresa Robertson and Philip Atkins, “Essential vs. Accidental Properties,” in <i>The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2016,
2016, http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/essential-accidental/.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> The divulged image of a slave exclaiming “Am I not a Man and a
Brother” was designed by Josiah Wedgwood in the late 18<sup>th</sup> century in
Scotland; see Iain Whyte, <i>Scotland and the Abolition of Black Slavery, 1756-1838</i>
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), 75f.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Max Scheler, <i>Die Stellung des Menschen im Kosmos.</i>
(Darmstadt: Reichl, 1928); English: Max Scheler, <i>The Human Place in the
Cosmos</i>, trans. Manfred S. Frings (Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press,
2009); Helmuth Plessner, <i>Die Stufen des Organischen und der Mensch:
Einleitung in die philosophische Anthropologie</i> (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1928);
there is no English translation; a summary in Marjorie Grene, “Positionality in
the Philosophy of Helmuth Plessner,” <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i> 20, no. 2
(1966): 250–77.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Cf. Andrews, <i>To Tell a Free Story</i>, 23, 103.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. IX, 66. Interestingly, this is also
quoted in Sojourner Truth, <i>Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave,
Emancipated from Bodily Servitude by the State of New York, in 1828</i>, ed.
Olive Garrison Gilbert (Boston: Printed for the author [J. B. Yerrinton and
Son], 1850), 64.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. IX, 66. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, chap. IX, 52. The author felt compelled to justify his
critical remarks in the Appendix of the book, pp. 97-102. On religion in
Douglass see Scott C. Williamson, <i>The Narrative Life: The Moral and
Religious Thought of Frederick Douglass</i> (Macon, Ga: Mercer University
Press, 2002).</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. IX, 53,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>X, 70-72 (Sabbath School); X, 63 (root). On
the Sabbath school see Sterling Stuckey, “‘My Burden Lightened’: Frederick
Douglass, the Bible, and Slave Culture,” in <i>African Americans and The Bible.
Sacred Texts and Social Textures</i>, ed. Vincent L. Wimbush (New York:
Continuum, 2000), 251–65.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, “The Nature of Slavery”, in Howard Brotz, ed., <i>African-American
Social and Political Thought, 1850-1920</i> (New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction
Publishers, 1992), 216.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> René Girard, <i>Things Hidden since the Foundation of the World</i>,
trans. Stephen Bann and Michael Metteer (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1987), 69. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. XI, 91.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, chap. XI, 92.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, <i>Autobiographies</i>, The Library of America:
68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), 651, cf. 354. – Just to avoid
misunderstandings that may come with the term ‘identity’: “A is identical with
A,” says nothing about A; and yet, it entails a reflective act of identifying.
In present-day social language, ‘identity’ may mean “Who or what a person or
thing is; ...<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a set of characteristics
or a description that distinguishes a person or thing from others” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Oxford English Dictionary</i>) and,
consequently, the belonging of a person to a group of people definable by
properties or shared values. The latter sense dominates in Robert S. Levine,
“Identity in the Autobiographies,” in <i>The Cambridge Companion to Frederick
Douglass</i>, ed. Maurice S. Lee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009),
31–45; J. Kameron Carter, “Race, Religion, and the Contradictions of Identity:
A Theological Engagement with Douglass’s 1845 <i>Narrative</i>,” <i>Modern
Theology</i> 21, no. 1 (2005): 37–65; 37: “identity—who we take ourselves to be
and how we orient ourselves to others.” In Douglass’s text, ‘to preserve the
identity’ asserts the reflective sameness of the author, which is the theme of
the autobiography. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers. Series Two</i>, 1:
Narrative:154–160; 157. On irony in Douglass see Stewart, “The Claims of
Frederick Douglass Philosophically Considered”, passim.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, “Lecture on Pictures,” in <i>Picturing
Frederick Douglass: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s Most
Photographed American: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s
Most Photographed American</i>, ed. John Stauffer, Zoe Trodd, and Celeste-Marie
Bernier (New York: Norton, 2015), 126–41; 133. The text is also in Douglass, <i>The
Frederick Douglass Papers</i>, series 1, vol. 3, 452-473; 455. Here with the
title “Pictures and Progress.”</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn35" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Lecture on Pictures”, 128.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn36" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Frederick Douglass, “Pictures and Progress,” in <i>Picturing
Frederick Douglass: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s Most
Photographed American: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s
Most Photographed American</i>, ed. John Stauffer, Zoe Trodd, and Celeste-Marie
Bernier (New York: Norton, 2015), 161–73; 163, 166. A summary of this in Douglass,
<i>The Frederick Douglass Papers</i>, series 1, vol. 3, 620.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn37" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. III, 28.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn38" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="FootnoteText1"><a href="#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Margaret Kohn, “Frederick Douglass’s Master-Slave Dialectic”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Journal of Politics</i>, 67, No. 2 (May,
2005), 497-514, says correctly (500), “Although the fight with Covey did bring
about a cessation to the brutal beatings he had endured, the emancipatory
consequences were primarily psychological in nature.” However, the
anthropological meaning goes beyond the personal psychological effect. Kohn has
the further relevant literature on the case.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn39" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 60.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn40" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. X, 64.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn41" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. X, 65.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn42" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. X, 65.</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn43" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Lewis R. Gordon, <i>Existentia Africana: Understanding Africana
Existential Thought</i> (New York: Routledge, 2000), 61. (Italics in the
original.)</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn44" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 65.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn45" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Bernard Boxill, “Two Traditions in African American Political
Philosophy”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Philosophical Forum</i>
24, no. 1-3, Fall-Spring 1992-93, 119-135; pp. 129 f. Further considerations,
derived from Douglass’s later political stances in Bernard R. Boxill, “The
Fight with Covey,” in <i>Existence in Black: An Anthology of Black Existential
Philosophy</i>, ed. Lewis R. Gordon (New York: Routledge, 1997), 273–90. Cf. Bernard
R. Boxill, “Douglass Against the Emigrationists,” in <i>Frederick Douglass: A
Critical Reader</i>, ed. Bill E. Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland (Malden, Mass.:
Blackwell Publishers, 1999), 21–49; 38-41; “Frederick Douglass as an
Existentialist” in Gordon, <i>Existentia Africana</i>, 41–61.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn46" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 65.</span></p>
</div>
</div>
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{page:WordSection1;}</style></p>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-55444141563286529372020-09-16T00:15:00.001-07:002020-09-16T00:15:31.672-07:00<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAciyfKsAeSZig18M77dbKGsaTwToaREsACFvCSJMNRgW5DBI6JfqyM60MkmgUp2yVpLWohBd_ra1ZI5IEP1VUl1Kk-n-wa0Na872nE7jjBeQd2ocT9h1YcZjjhjlg7_TGEME2zwOjNvo/s2048/Loyola+Middle+Class-vert-outlines+%25281%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2048" data-original-width="1387" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAciyfKsAeSZig18M77dbKGsaTwToaREsACFvCSJMNRgW5DBI6JfqyM60MkmgUp2yVpLWohBd_ra1ZI5IEP1VUl1Kk-n-wa0Na872nE7jjBeQd2ocT9h1YcZjjhjlg7_TGEME2zwOjNvo/s320/Loyola+Middle+Class-vert-outlines+%25281%2529.jpg" /></a></div><br />
<p></p><h1><span lang="EN-US">Nature, Nation, and Folk Culture: Johann Gottfried Herder
and the Birth of Middle-Class Self-conception</span></h1><h1><span lang="EN-US"><i>Paul Richard Blum</i> <br /></span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpFirst"><span lang="EN-US">Abstract:</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpLast"><span lang="EN-US">Johann Gottfried Herder
(1744-1803) praised Benjamin Franklin for his 'sense of humanity' based on
history and experience combined with practical reason. In fostering this sense
of humaneness in the German people, Herder investigated cultural history,
particularly folk poetry. Humanity is manifest in creativity, which pervades
human history and aims at societal perfection. Human nature, hence, is both
individual and expressed in folk culture that is equivalent with national
culture. References like the one to Franklin show that Herder pursued an
anti-feudal agenda and aimed at establishing civil pride in community and
geniality, which was to become middle-class ideology. </span><span class="xapple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 9.0pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US">Foreword</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhryQn8JzY0uGIe4vWlEARl6BUry_T3aH8dTfrGCQ50pl-kKoWYb_LnXhjq6k1PMIv8t7eXpKmn7cuuDUcvVVQ4XP9SqDaNNGG3Zwd8bl6qvTLJTx4WGvfmRGrzMpWq5CBUTmD7wQan0KA/s432/Picture2.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="212" data-original-width="432" height="157" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhryQn8JzY0uGIe4vWlEARl6BUry_T3aH8dTfrGCQ50pl-kKoWYb_LnXhjq6k1PMIv8t7eXpKmn7cuuDUcvVVQ4XP9SqDaNNGG3Zwd8bl6qvTLJTx4WGvfmRGrzMpWq5CBUTmD7wQan0KA/w320-h157/Picture2.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span><span lang="EN-US"></span><p></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p><p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">The poem continues describing the
suffering of a black slave being hanged for having resisted his fiancé to be touched.
Emmett Till in the 18<sup>th</sup> century and in reverse. Now, in case the
imagery sounds familiar – here is what we all know. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">Strange Fruit</span></i></b><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">By<b> </b>Abel Meeropol alias Lewis Allan</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Southern trees bear a strange fruit</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Blood on the leaves and blood at the root</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Black bodies swinging in the southern
breeze</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Strange fruit hanging from the poplar trees</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Pastoral scene of the gallant south</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The bulging eyes and the twisted mouth</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Scent of magnolias, sweet and fresh</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Then the sudden smell of burning flesh</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here is fruit for the crows to pluck</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">For the rain to gather, for the wind to
suck</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">For the sun to rot, for the trees to drop</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Here is a strange and bitter crop</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">The similarity between Billy
Holiday’s famous song and this poem by Herder is most likely not a coincidence.
The comparison is shocking, and meant to be so. What I could ascertain is, that
the author, the Jewish poet, and teacher of James Baldwin and secret communist,
Abel Meeropol from the Bronx was personally acquainted with two famous Germans
of his time: <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>The communist
composer Kurt Weill, who set <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Three
Pennies Opera </i>of Bertolt Brecht to music, and the very bourgeois writer
Thomas Mann. Incidentally, I will soon refer to Thomas Mann’s brother Heinrich
Mann and to Bert Brecht. But for now, it is worth mentioning that Johann
Gottfried Herder was engaged in the anti-slavery movement of the late 18<sup>th</sup>
century. The poem is part of a collection under the title “Neger-Idyllen” –
idyllic Negro scenes – which he included in his collection of essays <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Letters for the Advancement of Humanity</i>.
One page before this poem Herder observes with sarcasm: “The negro depicts the devil as white, and the
Latvian does not want to enter into heaven as soon as there are Germans there.”<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>What does it mean for a German
intellectual and a Lutheran theologian to decry the cruelty of slavery? As the
title of the essays claim: it’s about humanity. Now, the fact that some humans
depict the others as devils and hate Germans does not abolish humanity – it
rather calls for a theory of humanity that goes to its roots and explains the
potential of inhuman behavior. </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US">Introduction: Herder and Benjamin Franklin</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Another occasion that may make it plausible
to look into Herder from an American point of view is his appreciation of
Benjamin Franklin. Herder was
enchanted by Franklin’s autobiography (which he regretfully read in French). He
praised Franklin’s sense “for the simple and eternal laws of nature, the
unfailing practical rules, and the need and interest of humanity.”<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
Humanity is, in this note, reason, education, order, industriousness, common
sense; in one word, Ben Franklin is a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Volksschriftsteller</i>,
a folk writer in the best possible sense, that is, a writer who encourages
ordinary people to obtain all the virtues that make a good citizen in a free
nation. Herder attached to this essay his own translation of Franklin’s “Standing
Queries for the Junto”, a questionnaire intended to guide active citizens of the
“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Club for mutual Improvement”</span><span lang="EN-US">.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"> <a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[3]</span></span></span></a></span>
Interestingly, to some of the topics Herder added his personal comments.
Industry and “noble competition” are the best antidote against despotism and
slavery. Herder terms Franklin’s ideal club a “society of humanity” – thus
emphasizing his main agenda: humanity is the foundation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Volk</i>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Isn't it strange that in old and new times
the highest and most fruitful wisdom always came <u>from the people (<i>Volk</i>)</u>,
always with knowledge of nature ... , always accompanied by a calm, unbiased
spirit, accompanied by cheerful jest, and preferably dwelling under the rose? </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Herder claims that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Volk </i>is nature, spirit, cheerfulness,
and poetry (as exemplified in the rose). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Volk
</i>is the opposite of tyranny. Here we have Herder’s program of anthropology
of the naturally societal human being that is working, creative, and happy. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US">The downfall of the bourgeoisie: Heinrich Mann and
Berthold Brecht</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Now, since I am supposed to speak
about the making of the middle-class, I should offer a few definitions of
bourgeoisie, class, and folk culture as they feature in my presentation. To
make a long story short: the middle-class evolved as that stratum in a modern
society that was neither proletarian, fighting for plain survival in more or
less forced labor, nor feudal leadership as it existed in Ben Franklin’s time and
all over Europe until the collapse of monarchies as the result of the First
World War. I want to illustrate this effect with a negative and a positive
example in German literature, namely, Heinrich Mann and Bertolt Brecht. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">At the dawn of WWI, which was the twilight
of the German Empire, Heinrich Mann wrote his novel <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Untertan</i>. The title is the program: what makes an <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Untertan</i>? It is the bootlicking subject
to the feudal powers that be, whereby the subject believes to be loyal, but is
scorned by the authority whose boots require to be licked. This subject is the
middle-class bourgeois. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">This species is conscious of personal
agency and at the same time subject to higher law and destiny, which supports
and guarantees existence. The existence of the Untertan is dialectical insofar
as on the one hand, he is not a slave in any sense and rather confident of his
self-supporting prowess; on the other hand he can only exist by believing in
the authority that gives life. In this perspective, the citizen is free and
creative, but only in serving the protector. In one scene of the novel, the
leader of the liberals expressly shifts his discourse from criticizing the
Emperor to accusing the Untertan: “The average person with common intelligence
depends on circumstances: lackluster when things are not favorable to him, and
of great self-confidence when they turn around.” This ambiguity of
self-confidence and dependency is what feeds the citizen: creativity still
remains in the service of the superior. Heinrich Mann uses masochistic sex-play
as an allegory of such decadent bourgeois consciousness. “His eyes were full of
anxiety and desire,” he says of the citizen. And after this humiliation the
Untertan “crawled on all four and sought refuge behind the bronze [statue of]
the Emperor.” Heinrich Mann exhorts us not to cave in to despots and domination,
lest we lose our power.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Thus, the atmosphere of WWI: the ideology
of the middle-class collapses under the weight of the unresolved contradiction
of the ordinary man who is proud and confident of his own devices and, at the
same time, conscious of his dependence on the higher order that may smash him
or elevate him anytime. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">With Heinrich Mann we witness the end of
Herder’s endeavor: the human being is by nature endowed with creativity and as
such the independent burgher, the autonomous citizen. The loyal subject is that
sort of citizen who originally and naturally is free but fell for authority.
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Untertan</i> indicates the downfall
of middle-class and hence becomes subject of dictatorship. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Bert Brecht fought all his life against the
temptations that authority and power offered to subjects in order to quell
their autonomy and creativity. That’s why he was considered a communist, and
sided with communists after the Second World War. When in 1953, the workers of
the communist Eastern Germany revolted, and the government expressed sincere
disappointment in the working class, Brecht commented dryly: Well, then the
government should elect a different people. His emphasis on the capability of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Volk</i> to understand well what is and what is not their interest is
also visible in a famous statement of his: Das Volk ist nicht tümlich. Brecht
separated the qualifier from the noun: volkstümlich – volks-tümlich and
insisted that folklore does not exist without folk. Even more, whoever is
talking to the people has to acknowledge the intelligence and creativity of
them, and especially of the lower classes. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US">Herder: Human nature and folk culture</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">As we saw, for Herder, ‘folk’ is shorthand
for human nature, and humanity is co-extensive with societal life. In an age of
populism and with our recent history of abuse of concepts like citizenship,
nation, and patriotism we have to listen carefully to Herder’s ideas. Populism
pitches common sense against reason while implying cynically that ordinary
people are stupid enough to fall for propaganda. (That was Brecht’s critique of
folksiness.) Some propagandists make their audience believe that citizenship is
a birthright without challenge (and, consequently, also without merit); and
that nation and fatherland come first, and humanity last. This is the opposite of Herder’s teaching about humanity and
folk culture. In one of his essays, poetry is the touchstone.</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Poetry is most effective when it depicts
true morals and living nature; if the morals are good, and it depicts nature
for good aims, poetry also effects good morals and maintains them.<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Herder has no illusions regarding the
function of poetry at his times: it’s refined, decadent, ineffective regarding
morality, and plainly serves entertainment. True poetry is educational,
societal, political, provided poetry is rooted in human nature. In this
concept, the people coincides with morality and humanity. Herder’s paradigm is
the Bible.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"></span></b><span lang="EN-US">One of his least known and – in my view – most important books is
his study on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genesis </i>by the title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Älteste Urkunde des Menschengeschlechts</i>
(The most ancient document of humankind). It reads the story of creation as
God’s instruction to humans on nature, creation and human nature. Herder
interprets the story of creation as Unterricht unter der Morgenröte – <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Instruction under the Aurora</i>. The
beginning of the world is the first and foremost education of humankind about
being human. Therefore, talking about Sabbath, the moment God rested in His
creation work, Herder calls it the “first, great, mystic sanctum” for humans: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">To rest and having accomplished – is there any
more simple and dignified idea of the purpose (chased by man in everything down
here), of the beatitude, relish, and bliss? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>… It is the eternal maxim of humankind present
in hundreds of guises, disguises, and errors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Eternal rest, to be sure, is not what
we get down here; but the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genesis</i>
sets the standard. For the Protestant theologian, the Bible is the revelation
of human nature – and therefore it is also the first and foremost poetry. In a
way, whatever comes after the First Book of Moses must be weaker and inevitably
decadent. But it is also the standard, the first beginning which is the goal ingrained
in human existence. Therefore, the variations of humanity over time are not
simply lamentable errors; rather under whatever disguise, humans are human by
way of struggling. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In a rather conventional way, Herder
compares the ancient, medieval, and modern times with the phases of human life:
childhood, adulthood, and old age. But this is not meant in any nostalgic way.
While criticizing contemporary culture he does not give in to nostalgia and a
call to return to the golden age. Rather, Herder sees the epochs in a truly
historical sense. Humans evolve. Humanity changes aspect like fashions. The
history of humanity is the continuous mutation of the same human essence and
nature. The latest fad, however, is not what counts, but the “true morals and
living nature” that takes on so many guises and fashions. If we look carefully,
at any moment in history we are close to the golden age: “Tree top waving in
heavenly air – the golden age is near.” That is, the fulfillment of the golden
age is ever present. But how can we get hold of this human nature that appears
to be elusive? In poetry, and particularly in the poetry of the original folk
cultures. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">An exemplary case is William Shakespeare.
Herder joined the group of German intellectuals who rediscovered Shakespeare
and his poetic power, particularly against the classicism of the French
playwrights, which was perceived to be decadent. If it is true, Herder says,
that in classical Greek dramaturgy, the most important features were
simplicity, folk tradition, and life, then Shakespeare recovered that for the British: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Shakespeare found in front of him and all
around nothing but simplicity of native morals, actions, inclinations, and
historic traditions, as they made up Greek drama … And as a genius … he generated
the very same effect [as the Greeks did], that is, fear and compassion …<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"></span></b><span lang="EN-US">He calls Shakespeare “Sophocles’s
brother”, because to him the whole world is one body:
“Sophocles was faithful to nature” through the unity of action, place, and
time, while Shakespeare was faithful to nature by “trundling world events and
human fate through all places and all times.”<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
The emphasis is on nature, human nature; and with a stab at the French
dramatists Herder makes clear, human nature has nothing to do with fashion or
courtly entertainment. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Well, Shakespeare is no folk poet – or is
he? In Herder’s reading he is. For he shares the fundamental qualities of true
humane art: Hoheit, Unschuld, Einfalt, Tätigkeit, und Seligkeit (Loftiness,
Innocence, Simplicity, Action, and Bliss), as we saw. </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Ein Dichter so voll Hoheit, Unschuld,
Einfalt, Tätigkeit, und Seligkeit des menschlichen Lebens muß … gewiß wirken
und die Herzen rühren, die auch in der armen Schottischen Hütte zu leben
wünschen.<br />
A poet – so full of loftiness, innocence, simplicity, activity, and bliss of
human life ... –must certainly work and touch the hearts that also would wish
to live in the poor Scottish hovel.<a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">However, the poet Herder is praising <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">here </i>is not Shakespeare but Ossian;<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>and his exaltation of Ossian
precedes that of Shakespeare in Herder’s essays <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Von deutscher Art und Kunst </i>– On German Ways and Art. Ossian’s
songs, only recently discovered – as everyone believed – or, rather, recently
forged by a Scottish author, were intended to be, and were publicly received,
as the very original and natural form of folk poetry that expressed human
nature and natural community. They are, in Herder’s words, “songs, people’s
songs, songs of an uneducated sensual folk that were sung on for so long in the
tradition of the fathers” (448). “The more wild, that is, the more alive, the
more freely working a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">folk</i> … the more
wild, that is, the more alive, free, sensual, lyrically working, must be its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">songs</i>.” And he adds: “alive and freely
working is the actual meaning of folk.” (452). The original folksong is the more
authentic the wilder it is; or in other words: the more impressive and
compelling its texts and its images the folksong testifies for the national
character. The folksong is the conglomerate of emotions, sounds, letters,
melodies, images that all melt into one living world, a song of adages and a
national song that is the eternal heritage and joy of a people. (452). “Das sind die Pfeile dieses wilden
Apoll, womit er Herzen durchbohrt, und woran er Seelen und Gedächtnisse
heftet!” “These are the arrows of the wild Apollo, with which he transfixes the
hearts and to which he fixes souls and memories!” (452)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As I
said before, Herder is not calling for a nostalgic return to the primitive
state. He expressly ridicules Jean-Jacques Rousseau and his call to return back
to the state of animals. Humankind does progress by situations, education, and
traditions. But: “Woe to the philosopher of humanity and morals who considers
his time to be the only one and misjudges the first times to be the worst! …
Each and any of them show a remarkable trait of humanity.”<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"> </span>(456)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"></span><span lang="EN-US">Herder: From Volk to Nation </span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ossian and folk poetry also play a role in
Herder’s theory of language. In his famous <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Treatise
on the Origin of Language</i>, he places the Ossian poem next to Homer and to
Celtic, Caribbean, Peruvian and other epics. All these songs represent the
original language of each people; they preserve their treasure of language plus
history plus poetry. Humanity equals the creativity of speaking, telling
stories and singing.<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Interesting for our present topic is the
set of four laws of nature established in this work </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US">Erstes Naturgesetz<br />
Der Mensch ist ein freidenkendes, tätiges Wesen, dessen Kräfte in Progression
fortwürken; darum sei er ein Geschöpf der Sprache!</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US">Zweites</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times; font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></i><span lang="EN-US">Naturgesetz<br />
Der Mensch ist in seiner Bestimmung ein Geschöpf der Herde, der Gesellschaft:
die Fortbildung einer Sprache wird ihm also natürlich, wesentlich, notwendig.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US">Drittes Naturgesetz<br />
So wie das ganze menschliche Geschlecht unmöglich eine Herde bleiben konnte, so
konnte es auch nicht eine Sprache behalten. Es wird also eine Bildung
verschiedner Nationalsprachen.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US">Viertes Naturgesetz<br />
So wie nach aller Wahrscheinlichkeit das menschliche Geschlecht ein
progressives Ganze von einem Ursprunge in einer großen Haushaltung ausmacht, so
auch die Sprachen und mit ihnen die ganze Kette der Bildung.</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpFirst"><span lang="EN-US">1. “The human being is a
freely thinking, active being, whose forces operate forth progressively.
Therefore he must be a creature of language!”</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-US">2. “The human being is in
his destiny a creature of the herd, of society. Hence the progressive formation
of a language becomes natural, essential, necessary for him.”</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-US">3. “Just as the whole human
species could not possibly remain <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">one</b>
herd, likewise it could not retain <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">one</b>
language either. So there arises a formation of different national languages.”</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-US">4. “Just as in all
probability, humankind constitutes <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">one</b>
progressive whole with <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">one</b> origin in
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">one</b> great household, likewise all
languages, and with them the whole chain of civilization [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bildung</i>].”</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-US">Here we have in a nutshell
the interconnection of human nature, human culture, and human society. It is a
unity in diversity. </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpLast"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<h2><span lang="EN-US">Herder: From Universal to Civil Virtues </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"></span></h2>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Leaving the linguistic theories
aside, which are the core of this writing, we notice a social and political
program in these laws of nature that shape humanity. As in Ben Franklin’s
social thought, humanity manifests itself in activity, industry, and
communication. The diversity of cultures is the fruit of human creativity and
sociability. If humankind can be meaningful, then only as a huge household. Or,
the other way round, the civic household is the core and paradigm of society. For
us today, accustomed to democratic procedures and a republican constitution,
that appears to be quite plausible. But let us think the opposite: As the
medieval rebel John Ball had said: </span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then
the gentleman?</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Herder’s theory of poetry, language,
and humanity has no space for nobility, no respect for feudal institutions.
Occasionally, he pretended to appreciate a king, but in very ironic manner. In
his already quoted <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Letters for the
Advancement of Humanity</i>, he quotes at length the Roman Emperor Marcus
Aurelius, known to some philosophy students as the author of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Meditations</i> in stoic mood. Herder
introduces the excerpts as paradigmatic for the understanding of human nature,
its strength and gifts, its vocation and duty. “The human being has will, is
capable of law; reason is law to humans.”<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
Accordingly the excerpts from the Roman Emperor’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Meditations </i>cover liberty, housekeeping, reasonability, community,
and civility. The excerpts conclude with the praise:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Wir wollen nicht sagen: “Heiliger bitte für
uns; sondern: <i>menschlicher Kaiser, sei uns ein Muster</i>.”<a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
Let us not say: Saint, pray for us; but, rather: humane Emperor, be our model.</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">It is unmistakable irony when Herder
advertises bourgeois virtues under the guise of learning from an Emperor. The
irony was certainly a ploy to circumvent censure from Prussian authorities. But
as in many thinkers of the same time, irony was an art that promoted ideas not
on billboards but by making people think. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Let me conclude our tour into the far
distant origins of middle-class ideology with yet another piece of irony. Again,
Herder publishes excerpts, this time from a speech delivered in 1792 on the
occasion of the opening of a public library. It opens with a clear endorsement of the economic importance of
civil engagement, and as such, it could be repeated at any present-day
humanities symposium. And again, Herder finishes with a very ambiguous punch
line. He cites a poem, an epitaph, by his contemporary Ewald von Kleist. It
says, in my translation:</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Wit, understanding and scholarship, taste,
modesty, humaneness, and honesty and integrity,</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">The burgher's virtues, the finest man’s
gifts,</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Had he who was buried here.</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">He lived for his town; died with quiet
courage.</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Winds, breeze softly where his ashes are
resting. </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">We may say, for a Lutheran pastor,
praising education and then all the middle-class virtues that even today we
recognize – that was acceptable, if not even his duty. However, his appendix is
not a faithful transcription of the original. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Kleist’s epitaph, however, had been
addressed to a fallen soldier, a field officer. Herder silently translated all
references to the military into civilian, bourgeois features:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh614aleii55LhVgT0YX9ecD1imfpyZyK_Nw8Ih-5Q4VkXk-dkMIeEC95KiYMdkGFidAwwnJYN5PUDrV9WBaALZL3JXx4IY2AB2m3mNWJndUtmvXbIeHQr1ACOtlVjBsVKjh8oLYXvooX8/s319/Picture1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh614aleii55LhVgT0YX9ecD1imfpyZyK_Nw8Ih-5Q4VkXk-dkMIeEC95KiYMdkGFidAwwnJYN5PUDrV9WBaALZL3JXx4IY2AB2m3mNWJndUtmvXbIeHQr1ACOtlVjBsVKjh8oLYXvooX8/s0/Picture1.png" /></a></div><br /><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"></span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Herder's Version of Kleist's Poem</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Witz, Einsicht, Wissenschaft, Geschmack,
Bescheidenheit, </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Und Menschenlieb' und Redlichkeit,</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Des Bürgers Tugenden, des feinsten Mannes
Gaben, </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Besaß Er, den man hier begraben. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Er lebte seiner Stadt; er starb mit stillem
Muth. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ihr Winde, wehet sanft, wo seine Asche
ruht. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Lebe wohl, geliebte, gutmüthige Seele!</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpFirst"><span lang="EN-US">Valor turns into integrity,
virtues are civil virtues, dying for the fatherland is outdone by life in the
town, and soldierly valor evolves into quiet courage. Herder adds the line: “Faire
well, beloved good-natured soul!”</span></p>
<p class="NomalafterQuoteCxSpLast"><span lang="EN-US">The history of human nature
culminates in civility and humaneness. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Johann Gottfried Herder, <i>Herder: Philosophical Writings</i>, ed.
Michael N. Forster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 383.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Briefe Humanität I 2: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Und wie ſehr ha</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ͤ</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lt er ſich
allenthalben an die einfachen, ewigen Geſetze der Natur, an die unfehlbarſten
praktiſchen Regeln, <span class="dta-corr">aus</span> Bedu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ͤ</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">rfniß und Intereſſe
der Menſchheit!”</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Benjamin Franklin, “Standing Queries for the Junto - 1:255a,”
Benjamin Franklin Papers, accessed March 24, 2019,
http://franklinpapers.org/framedVolumes.jsp; Benjamin Franklin, “Standing
Queries for the Junto, 1732,” Founders Online, accessed March 31, 2019,
http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-01-02-0088.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Über die Wirkung der Dichtkunst auf die Sitten der Völker in alten
und neuen Zeiten. Werke 4, 149-214; 213: “Denn ist die Dichtkunst am
wirksamsten, wenn sie wahre Sitten, lebendige Natur darstellt; sind die Sitten
gut, stellet sie die lebendige Natur zu guten Zwecken dar, so kann sie auch
gute Sitten wirken, und lange erhalten.”</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Herders Werke Aufbau 2, p. 247.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Ibid. 254.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> “Von deutscher Art und Kunst I: Auszug aus einem Briefwechsel über
Ossian und die Lieder der Alten Völker”, </span><span lang="EN-US">Johann Gottfried Herder, <i>Werke in Zehn Bänden</i>, vol. 2
(Frankfurt: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1993), 447.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Johann Gottfried Herder, <i>Werke in zehn Bänden</i>, vol. 1
(Frankfurt: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1985), 791.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Johann Gottfried Herder, <i>Werke in zehn Bänden</i>, vol. 7
(Frankfurt: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1991), 153.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Georgia",serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Herder, 7:157.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
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ol
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ul
{margin-bottom:0cm;}</style> <br /></p>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-18497411217491579102020-09-15T01:37:00.001-07:002020-12-16T11:00:09.709-08:00<p>
</p><h1><span lang="EN-US">Epidemic and the Individual: Renaissance Understandings of
the Plague in View of Modern Experiences</span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Paul Richard Blum (Loyola University Maryland,
Baltimore)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US"> [Draft for </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Annals of Cultural Studies / Annales des Études Culturelles ISSN 2082-8578</span></span>]</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-color: #fcff01;">Now published at http://dx.doi.org/10.18290/rkult20113-5</span><br /></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Abstract</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Epidemics are a challenge to individualism.
While we tend to think of illnesses in terms of personal suffering and choices,
plagues affect communities and societies over long times. Epidemics turn the
perspective to the collective, the transcendent, and the external, and fear,
therapy and care become universal, rather than individual. These are the
lessons we can gather from Renaissance philosophers’ theories of epidemics.
Marsilio Ficino (1433-99) gave “Advice against the pestilence” by emphasizing
the harmony of body with the environment (air and the planets). Girolamo
Fracastoro (1477-1553) produced the first description of “Syphilis,” both
scientifically and poetically. He invented the name for that contagion. He saw
sexual activity as one of the typical behaviors among fellow humans. Care for
one’s health requires respect for the others; and blaming others (as in ‘French
disease’) is useless. Jean Fernel (1497-1558) called for strictly medical
research into epidemics; at the same time, he acknowledged the insufficiency of
data; hence the title of his book “The hidden causes.” Thus, he explained the
irrational behavior of populations and some scholars. The task is to live with
uncertainty and to contain epidemics by containing the unknown. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Key words: Plague, Syphilis, Marsilio
Ficino, Girolamo Fracastoro, Jean Fernel</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="NormalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Epidemics, the pestilence or the
plague, are illnesses that affect a great number of people simultaneously and over
a long time. They are distinct from other diseases for that reason that they
spread out and, thus, involve all who are affected and also every related
person. For instance: high blood pressure, cancer, or diabetes are widely
occurring medical problems, and yet, in our time we would call them epidemics
only in a metaphorical sense; for many individuals are affected, but every
patient is ill in individual terms and conditions. The plague, on the contrary,
affects all, even the healthy ones, and therefore requires both a different
kind of treatment and special communal consideration. Several years ago, the
mayor of a metropolitan area decreed reducing salt and sugar in drinks for
public consumption; the intent was to fight blood pressure and overweight
disorders among the citizens. But the opponents decried this action as “nanny
state” policy that deprives the citizens of their right to select their food.
This shows, that health is a matter of individual choices, even if these
choices are made in masses and fatally. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One example regarding the general and the
personal outlook of diseases in our times is a linguistic detail. When the news
reports a person has taken ill or died, we do not hear that person “suffered
from cancer” (or diabetes or any other illness) or died of it or battled with
it; rather the formula is: “suffered from <i>his/her</i> cancer” (etc.). The
suffering is personal and owned by the suffering individual (something Stoicism
would sternly refute), whereas medically speaking that individual was affected by
an external attack and a disease, which would not even be treatable, if it were
just individual rather than generic. In speaking in this sort of pattern, the
community denies or veils the fact that all of those medical problems are
rampant and, frequently enough, outcomes of the way of life in modern Western
society that prides itself of being individualistic and global at the same
time. In this perspective a periodical published recently, in Spring 2020, contains
some responses to the crisis of the Corona Virus (Covid-19) by academic
philosophers in Germany, and the result is symptomatic: the common denominator
of the responses was Angst, i.e., the anxiety felt by individuals across the
societal strata and public institutions, a psychological response of
individuals to the general threat.<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
Although this was explained with reference to existentialist philosophies,
precisely because existentialism frames the objective as rooted in the subject,
the responses failed to understand that also this present-day plague is in and
of itself not a personal human condition but a global and objective biological/medical
condition that affects human beings exactly because it is external rather than
something ghostly we have to live with. While taking recourse to the
existentialist Angst, the backdoor opens to occultist threats. Evidence for
this is an observation by Carlo Ginzburg who, as we know, is well familiar with
the behavior of ordinary people. He detected elements of religious, Biblical,
language in the formula “herd immunity”, as it is currently used in describing
strategies to overcome the Corona pandemic, which is an obscure outreach to
transcendent healing (the Savior caring for His herd) that evokes the
perception of the suffering of the individual person as a sacrifice for the
salvation of the masses. In present sanitary politics this amounts to “herd
democracy” which is just another word for totalitarianism.<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">This particular trait of epidemies, namely,
their relevance for the community at large and their universal outlook, was
known to the older theorists of medicine, and it appears to return in our age
when the global interconnectedness of the political, physical, and mental order
and disorder re-enter the stage. What is interesting, however, is the
difference in approach in our times and in the Renaissance. In the past, the
challenge of the plague as a universal threat was addressed in universalizing
forms of reasoning.</span></p>
<p class="MsoQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Pestilence is a feverish infection, infested
with dire sicknesses that come with it; it is contagious and fatal for most or
at least many humans at one and the same time.<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #404040; font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman \(Body CS\)"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 191;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="NormalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">This is how Georg Agricola
(1494-1555), best known for his works on mining, but also trained as a medical
doctor, defines the plague in his treatise <i>On the Plague </i>in 1554. This
definition still holds true for what we call epidemic or pandemic, especially
regarding the contagiousness and the spread. As a scientist, Agricola considers
the causes and gently dismisses the theological and the astrological origin. He
excuses himself that, as a scientist, he may not contradict the explanation
according to which God uses the plague as a punishment, nor does he flatly deny
the influence of astral constellation. Instead of taking recourse to abstract
notions, as the philosopher does (including the author of this paper), Agricola
investigates the “evident causes,” which consist in the fact that “the plague
comes most frequently from heavy and pestilential air, less frequently from a
long lasting intemperance of the air, and more rarely from food and drink that
make body fluids prone to decay and fever.” The most common cause of plague,
then, is air that has been made pestilential through festering and decaying
corpses and their exhalations.<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
From a theoretical point of view, Agricola is reducing the overarching
causality of divine intervention and celestial influx to the state of the air,
which, on the other hand, is modified by death and rottenness of the organic
life. He is claiming to argue empirically, and yet he cannot forego a
systematic link between the surrounding element of air and the particular state
of corrosion in that which is surrounded by air. The philosopher rises to the
level of the metaphysically universal, the naturalist invokes overarching
realities (including divine intervention and astral powers), but the empirical
doctor establishes the interaction between the concrete life and death and the
physical surrounding or environment to the extent that both the environment and
the bodies are affecting each other mutually. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Renaissance scientists and philosophers
were not at all working in a merely theoretical realm. Ficino’s treatise is
intended to be an advice for his contemporaries, and the same is true for the
books by Girolamo Fracastoro and Jean Fernel, which I will briefly introduce.
As much as the current Corona crisis is for us, the plague and epidemies were a
daily experience and danger for them. The bubonic plague kept persistently
killing people ever since the famous plague of 1348 that remains associated
with Giovanni Boccaccio’s <i>Decameron</i>.<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
What we should find out in the Renaissance authors are hints as to where to
search for remedies, and not just treatments for individual sick persons but
for the plague as a universal phenomenon that realizes itself in medical cases.
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Marsilio
Ficino</span></b></p>
<p class="NormalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), known
as the most important Platonist of the Renaissance, wrote in 1481 an <i>Advice
against the Plague</i> responding to a recent outbreak and leaning on the
practical experience of his father, Diotefeci, a practicing physician.<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
He defines the plague as “a poisonous vapor born in the air, inimical of the
vital spirit” (ch. 1), and he explains the poisonousness by contrasting it with
theriac. The vapor of the plague is inimical not because of its single
properties like warm/cold and dry/humid (the basic properties of the four
elements) but due to the specific proportion that is opposite the properties of
the vital spirit in a human body. This is not present-day science, so a few
explanations are in order. The vital spirit is that condition that keeps an
animate body alive and is both spiritual and corporeal. A residue of that knowledge
is present in the modern meaning of spirits for alcohol. The key theory, here,
is that the pestilential vapor is of a composition that is opposed to the life
of the body. In contrast, theriac is a medicine that works because it is
proportionate to the vital spirit. Theriac, a medical concoction based on the
poison of vipers (which is also entailed in its name derived from Greek <i>therion</i>),
has been known from antiquity.<a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
It is the paradigmatic antidote: healing poison with poison. In his other
medical work, the more theoretical <i>De vita</i>, Ficino explains the
effectiveness of theriac as follows: this medicine does not remove nor alter
the poison, rather, it strengthens the tender and changeable vital spirit
immediately through an appropriate proportion to the effect that the vital
spirit can become an agent itself, with the theriac as a means, and thus overcome,
modify, or fend off the poison from the vital parts. This proportionate power
comes from Jove and the Sun (Jupiter and Phoebus). Therefore, Ficino continues,
theriac is effective thanks to the celestial power; there is a different
celestial power in the herbs and spices, and there are elemental powers, which
all work together to fortify the vital spirit against the disease. This
cooperation of celestial power acquired purposefully with naturally stored
celestial properties and elements is what renders the medication effective.<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">That sets the scene for a practical
approach to the illness in the <i>Advice</i>: a living organism is deranged by
an external unfitting air and may be cured by a medication that derives its
powers from a particular poison. Ficino clarifies that the poisonousness of the
air is generic, but it does not affect every person indistinctively but only
those organisms that are already out of order for having certain putrefying or boiling
humors. It is the condition of the body that invites the air to become
infectious. We see a clear tension between the external world and the ailing
body and an interaction of fighting back against the infection by strengthening
itself. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">When Ficino addresses the origin of the
plague (ch. 2) he explains that all pestilences grow out of the air from the
nocuous constellations, specifically Mars and Saturn, which then impact people
and places with unlucky astrological positions.<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
In some epidemics the poison arises from winds and evil vapors, lakes,
morasses, and earthquakes. Again, not every person is affected but only those
that have a disposition which is key to the effect. Generally speaking, he
explains, the medical rule holds: When the matter is so disposed the agent
works effectively, even if it is weak; and vice versa, a highly potent agent is
effective on the matter, even if that seems not disposed for it. The medical
cures that follow regard conduct of life regarding food and drink (ch. 5); then
follows medication, especially theriac but also pills according to precise
recipes, liquid medicine, and bloodletting (ch. 6); then follow further
prescriptions and cures that pertain to the practical expertise of physicians
mostly geared at strengthening and restoring the patient. The book closes with
the advice to keep cups, plates, and bedsheets clean, to be cautious with
cattle, horses, and other animals, and with a prayer that God may reveal
remedies. Are we surprised that these cautionary measures are valid even in the
pandemic that started in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Those details are important for the history
of medicine as a discipline and a practice; philosophically, this approach to
the epidemy shows a form of thought that is certainly typically humanistic.
Ficino addresses the endangerment from the outside, identifies its natural
location in the totality of the environment, and then plays it off against the
human individual. The patient is not helplessly suffering but has to search the
remedy in the body and behavior as it is personally owned. The pest can only
affect the body if is weak or at least weaker than the external infection.
Therefore, protection and cure depend on both strengthening the body and
weakening and reigning in of the inimical environment. The physician and the
patient consider the place of the human being in the world, they observe and
appraise the external conditions, and rearrange that constellation as best they
can. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Girolamo
Fracastoro</span></b></p>
<p class="NormalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Girolamo Fracastoro (1477-1553)
responded to a very new and threatening pestilence, namely the Syphilis. He
created, indeed, the name for this disease in his poem <i>Syphilis sive de
morbo gallico</i>. The poem in three books with 1346 hexameters offers medical
and historical information combined with mythological traits. It opens with the
consideration that this new affliction is actually not new but only resurgent
from antiquity. The disease sure appears to have been brought from the West by
Spaniards so that international trade (<i>commercium</i>)<i> </i>is supposed to
cause it. However, relying on observation, Fracastoro points to the enormous
speed of the circulation of the disease all over Europe. Hence follows the task
to investigate the “order” (<i>ordo</i>) in which the illness has spread. This
entails that the syphilis has been latent for a long time in history and is yet
the same.<a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
According to astro-medicine of the time, the illness spreads through the air
under the constellation of the stars, which makes it understandable that the
air can also carry new diseases and new contagions for a long stretch of times.<a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
On the whole, this is a historicizing view on the pestilence, based on the
observation of occurrences. It is surprising, then, that the poet turns to the
suffering of a single case: he knew a handsome, athletic young man who was
overly confident; the ruin seized him (perhaps cursed by a girl he had
rejected) with all kinds of deformities and suffering.<a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
From there follow considerations about the reasons that made Italy subject to
the plague, including discord that had led to the French invasion of 1508-1511.
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">We see Fracastoro cast the plot in medical,
empirical, ethical, and political terms. In the second book, he approaches
therapy (avoiding contact, certain airs, diet) and narrates the discovery of
quicksilver (mercury) in mythological key. In all this he keeps reminding the
readers that he is speaking as a physician and advisor, thus relativizing the
poetic appearance in favor of practice. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The third book offers yet another remedy,
this time one that comes from the same place as the newly discovered plague,
the new world. Guaiacum, a wood, was known to provide a therapeutic potion, and
the poet explains the procedures, including the astro-medical conditions. Then
follows a narration of the voyage of Columbus. The arrival of the explorers
turns out to be an intrusion of religious proportions that deserve the curse with
a new affliction pronounced by one bird of a swarm that had been frivolously
attacked with guns by the Europeans.<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>
Here we also learn the mythic origin of the pestilence as a vengeance of the
gods and especially Apollo. A shepherd named Syphilus had decided to honor only
the king rather than the gods and enticed his fellow rustics to do the same.
For inventing rites and raising altars to the king he was the first to be
afflicted by what then was named Syphilis.<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>
Whenever people are faced with suffering and especially when its cause and scope
is hard to fathom, punishment by God is one of the possible assumptions. Fracastoro’s
poetical framing offers a rationalizable explanation: humans as active beings transgress
boundaries in various ways, for instance, as they intrude a foreign
civilization, violate the integrity of nature, and commit sacrileges against
the divine order. That, we can assume, was true not only at this particular
point in history, but is one of the weaknesses of human culture. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">This consideration also helps interpreting
why Fracastoro is rather silent about the fact that Syphilis is a venereal
disease. In book II of the poem he mentions among the cautionary measures to
“distrust” the bed and slumber because these are beguiling and foster the vice;
rather, one should seek pleasure in songs and dances of boys and girls.
However, avoid Venus and unmanly coitus, he warns, for Venus and tender girls
hate the contact (<i>contagem</i>).<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a>
Evidently, sexual activity is just one detail of human behavior, so that, even
if the illness is transmitted this way, it is still to be considered in the
context of the overall attitude towards fellow humans and the care for personal
health. In his later scientific book <i>On Contagions</i>, Fracastoro confirms
the message of the poem <i>Syphilis</i>. Here he says clearly that bodily
contact alone is not infectious but only when bodies are heated up as happens
during coitus; he also observes that breastfed babies can be infected. Since
the disease can spread without contact, and since pestilences come and go over
long periods, it has to be classified as one of the plagues that depend on many
factors, including astronomical situations.<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">If there appears to be a tension between
the universal occurrence of the disease – geographically and historically – and
the narrative of an origin with a name and a place and a time, the message may
be that all people are naturally inclined to blame a culprit. Fracastoro
expresses this when he shifts the name from “French Disease” (<i>morbus
Gallicus</i>) to Syphilis. Instead of accusing the above-mentioned French
invasion (or, for that matter, the migrants to and from the New World) he
shifts the culpability to a mythical character, Syphilus, who embodies the
individual perpetrator as a representative of humankind. The question “Who done
it?” and the accusation that follows from it is ingrained in human nature, so
that the only remedy is to care for the individual through research that is
based on scientific method. In the pandemic of the 20<sup>th</sup> century it
has become obvious that blaming one particular source is nothing but
scapegoating without noticeable results, while the universal crisis can only be
contained through responsible behavior of each and every person. The awareness
of such responsibility, however, is dependent on the insight in into the
universality of the individual hardship. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jean
Fernel</span></b></p>
<p class="NormalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">Jean Fernel (1497-1558), a French
physician, supported the theory that the syphilis had its origin in Europe from
Naples and was certainly introduced in the wake of the exploration of the New
World. He rejected the theory that constellations caused the dissemination and
extension of the illness all over Europe, rather he confirmed the observation
that sexual intercourse, breastfeeding and other immediate bodily contacts were
infectious. However, he also tried to dispel various rumors by stating that the
origin of an epidemic is less important than information about the mechanisms
and effects of the illness, from whence to derive appropriate therapies.<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
One remark in this context strikes as relevant also in present-day experience,
namely, the expectation that plagues come and disappear in a short time. That
is not the reality we need to face, he says. Rather, unless God extinguishes
the disease or contains human libido, it will remain a “companion” to humanity
and “immortal.”<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a>
(Talking of sexual desire and a deadly disease, this is certainly said
tongue-in-cheek.) On the other hand, people tend to rush to all sorts of
unapproved medications, for instance mercury and potions. It is not the illness
but the anxiety that makes people do so, not knowing that this remedy only
cures the symptoms and cures can have grave side effects like shooting with
canons.<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a>
What needs to be done is knowing the essence and nature of the disease, as
stated before. Fernel was not an existentialist as the philosophers mentioned
at the beginning of this essay.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Lues is only one of many illnesses studied
in Fernel’s book <i>On the Hidden Causes of Things</i>. The major principle and
first task of medicine is to know the physiology of the human body, its parts
and composition, and the operations; this is only done by conceptualizing
observations regardless whether one ascribes the causes to their foundation and
temperaments or to divine origin.<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a>
That has a skeptic ring, and an empirical one; or we might call it pragmatic. This
also helps learning from his discussion of the plague. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Referring to the standard explanation that
pestilences are airborne, he clarifies that air as such is clean, but once
polluted it scatters the illness like seeds. Turned infectious, the air becomes
endemic, as he terms it, and epidemic while spreading out universally.
Pollutions from heaven then produce pestilences.<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a>
Not as a scientific explanation but as a feature of human experience, Fernel
suggests that these huge developments in nature cannot be reduced to weather
phenomena and therefore plausibly lead to assume a highest general cause from
the sublime.<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a>
Evidently, the pestilence cannot be fully explained with putrefaction. In other
words, the causes of pestilences are blind, obscure, and hidden (<i>caeca,
obscura et abdita</i>) in being directly opposed to substance and destructive
for the entire genus so that they cannot come from elements or their qualities.
Hence, every cause of the pestilence is blind and destructive coming from
somewhere else, namely from astral constellations. Whoever denies this
explanation suffers from serious stupidity; given that stars take care of the
salvation and conservation, they can also provide for downfall of a life that
is in bad order.<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">We may notice in this line of argument that
Fernel as a scientist focuses on the phenomena as they are reported and
observable; in that sense, he is an empiricist. At the same time he notices two
limits of scientific treatment of plagues: human weakness and the deficiency of
data. Humans not only have unhealthy conduct of life they also are scared and
take resource to irrational measures. Even the level minded ones may refer to
supernatural causation. The sober scientist, on the other hand, has to
acknowledge the fact that some explanations escape empirical patterns.
Pestilence is blind, that is, it works without an appreciable purpose, and its
origin and mechanisms remain obscure. At this point we should remember that
lues and plague are only exemplary cases and applications of the main topic of
the book, namely, to integrate the study of medicine in a general theory of
occult causes: <i>On the Hidden Causes of Things</i>. The entire first book is
a philosophical study of the natural world in terms of substance, form, powers,
generation, and spirits. In this metaphysical and empirical approach, Fernel re-discusses
the existing theory of occult qualities and forces that was standard at his
time. Occult qualities had always been shorthand for natural phenomena that escape
physical explanation (think of magnetism). Inevitably, they could either point
to supernatural interventions by angels or demons or serve as a subterfuge verging
on occultism. It was Fernel in this book who refined the theory of occult
powers as a methodical delineation of the limits and possibilities of
scientific explanation and its desiderata.<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a>
Fernel defines occult causes as follows: any admirable performance, the cause
of which is hidden, concealed, and occult and cannot be proven or definitely
explained needs to be related to the divine. That includes whatever does not
come out of the simple properties of things and transcends human understanding.
To that he adds: well, if you recognize it to be divine, it is not anymore uncertain
or hidden.<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a>
He might have said that with a hint of irony. For, that is precisely the role
of this theory of hidden powers, to contain scientific uncertainty with method
to the extent that recourse to divine or spiritual intervention loses the taste
of spookiness or superstition. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">Conclusion</span></b></p>
<p class="NormalafterQuote"><span lang="EN-US">The plague was not an individual
disease, but an epidemic. And yet, it was no different from individual
diseases, as throughout Christianity personal diseases were always seen
embedded in the overall picture of the nature and activity of God. If up to the
17<sup>th</sup> century the influences of certain planets and constellations were
held responsible for the spread and intensity of a disease, then this means in
the first place that the fate of the individual appeared accessible to the
empathy of others; likewise, the individual has to orientate and position
himself/herself towards the higher powers. Therefore, it is superfluous and
useless to say that we have better knowledge thanks to modern medical science,
but we may say – without rejecting modern medicine and natural science – that
there are different patterns of interpretation when it comes to those
irregularities that are manifest in a disease. These irregularities are either
individual and therefore call for personal responsibility, or they are
universal if not transcendent. Common to both astrological or supernatural and
empirical medical interpretation is that we are looking for a horizon of
meaning and a generalizable explanation that will make action possible in the
individual case. Individual action is impossible without a sense-framework. If
this framework does not exist, action is erratic or absurd or irrational. The
rationality underlying both past and modern interpretations of pandemics,
epidemics, plagues, or any other mass disease as such is that of searching for
the causes. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the early modern attempts to explain mass
infections, the cause was sought outside, i.e., through scrutinizing which
external forces may have caused the disorder inside, or whether the individual
case was a deviation from the general norm. It is also important to note that
the comets or the air or other influences from outside were not only seen as
indicators or predictions but also had a causal meaning. The star of Bethlehem
was always interpreted as an indication of a world historical event with
theological significance. But otherwise, astrology was understood in such a way
that one can read from the movement of the stars what will happen on earth, not
only as parallel signification but in a cause-effect relationship. A further
distinction to think about is the one between facilitating circumstances or
conditions that promote illnesses and the direct influence on the illness or
even the cause of the illness, which therefore becomes comprehensible.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">One question that Ficino pursued, as we
saw, was why the stars do not cause the same disease for all people at the same
time, when they are the universal cause of what happens in this world. For this
he has the explanation that the causative power of the spheres must correspond
to a readiness in the individual, i.e., a disposition to be ill or a resistance
to becoming ill. In this kind of medicine the relationship of the individual
has to be put into relation with the universal so that the general power can be
causally effective or, on the contrary, its deranging work can be constrained by
good behavior on the side of the person. It is crucial that the doctor as well
as the patient have to assess the relationship between the sick and the
disease-causing phenomenon, and this creates a transcendental relationship to
the overall environment. The higher powers are not cruel or benevolent but
demand from the individual a sort of positioning in order to be favorable or unfavorable
to the individual. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">This necessary relationship between the
universal (the divine or astral powers) and the individual is strengthened in
Fracastoro’s mythical framing of the medical problem. Medicine is a story about
sick people, about healers, sinners, and salvation. Mythology and poetry offer
this ideal setting of a story that incarnates the failures, the suffering, and
the battles of every individual person. Insofar as mythology is the shrouded
intervention of the divine, it is also a reminder that every person has to take
responsibility in the face of the Creator; and where the religious dimension is
not convincing, Syphilus’ and the Spaniards’ actions remind the reader that
personal pride feeds at the expenses of the society. Fernel appears the most secularized
among the three authors studied here. And yet, with his theory of occult
causation he leaves the door open to admit that every epidemy, in devastating
peoples and individuals, remains unspeakable and thus is the embodiment of the
human desire for knowledge of the unconcealed truth. When we wonder that Fernel
made our ignorance – the occult forces – the methodical key to the cure, we see
a parallel in the puzzlement of the general public, and even some officials,
today, over the meaning of statistics. Most of the debates over the right
actions against the Corona virus circle around the interpretation of data,
which are all as uncertain as statistics are, because they are gathered from
single cases but extrapolated into probabilities and generic prospects, in
which the individual feels overlooked and lost. Disorientation, as we saw,
induces to aimless finger-pointing, <i>complottismo</i>, as the Italians say:
there is always someone to blame, instead of reflecting upon one’s behavior. The
face mask that is becoming an everyday attribute of considerate demeanor is
emblematic for this mutuality of the self and the surrounding: one takes care of
oneself by protecting the others. The most important lesson we can learn from
the Renaissance scholars is the awareness that any mass disease is neither
individual nor blindly fatal and not reducible to physiology but the consequence
and symptom of how societies and their members interact with each other, with their
surrounding nature, and with the transcendent. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Bibliography</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Agricola, Georg. <i>De
peste libri tres</i>. Basel: Froben, 1554.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Beecher,
Donald. “Ficino, Theriaca and the Stars.” In <i>Marsilio Ficino: His Theology,
His Philosophy, His Legacy</i>, edited by Michael J. B. Allen, Valery Rees, and
Martin Davies, 243–56. Leiden: Brill, 2001.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Beiweis,
Susanne. “Saturn und Talisman: Die heterogenen Begriffe der Magie am Beispiel
von Marsilio Ficinos ‘De vita libri tres.’” Phil. Diss., Wien, 2015.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Beiweis,
Susanne K. “‘Naturam Ars Imitatur’: Magical Images within Marsilio Ficino’s <i>De
Vita Libri Tres</i>.” <i>Verbum - Analecta Neolatina</i> 19, no. 1–2 (2018):
155–80. http://www.verbum-analectaneolatina.hu/en_issue.php?issue=XIX/2018/1-2.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Blum,
Paul Richard. “Qualitas occulta.” In <i>Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie</i>,
7:1743–47. Basel: Schwabe, 1989.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“Covid-19
und die PhilosophInnen. Eine Übersicht über die mediale Präsenz der
Philosophie.” <i>Information Philosophie</i>, no. 2 (2020): 16–25.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel,
Jean. <i>On the Hidden Causes of Things</i>. Edited by John Henry and John M.
Forrester. Translated by John M. Forrester. [De abditis rerum causis,
Lat.-Engl.]. Leiden: Brill, 2005.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ficino,
Marsilio. <i>Consilio contro la pestilenzia</i>. Edited by Enrico Musacchio.
Bologna: Cappelli, 1983.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">———.
<i>Three Books on Life</i>. Edited by Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark.
Binghamton, N.Y.: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1989.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fracastorius,
Hironymus. “De contagionibus et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione.” In <i>Opera
omnia</i>, 77r–110v. Venetiis: Iunta, 1584.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fracastoro,
Girolamo. “Syphilis sive de morbo gallico.” In <i>Latin poetry</i>, translated
by James Gardner, 1–85. Cambridge, Mass.: The I Tatti Renaissance Library,
Harvard University Press, 2013.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Frischmann,
Bärbel. “Das Virus und die Angst.” <i>Information Philosophie</i>, no. 2
(2020): 8–15.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ginzburg,
Carlo. “Une démocratie grégaire?” <i>En attendant Nadeau</i> (blog), July 11,
2020.
https://www.en-attendant-nadeau.fr/2020/07/12/democratie-gregaire-ginzburg/.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Herrmann,
Sabine. <i>Tomaso Rangone: Arzt, Astrologe und Mäzen im Italien der Renaissance</i>.
Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2017.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hirai,
Hiro. “Ficin, Fernel et Fracastor autour du concept de semence: Aspects
platoniciens de seminaria.” In <i>Girolamo Fracastoro fra medicina, filosofia e
scienze della natura: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi in occasione
del 450. anniversario della morte, Verona-Padova 9-11 ottobre 2003</i>, edited
by Alessandro Pastore and Enrico Peruzzi, 245–60. Firenze: Olschki, 2006.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">———.
<i>Medical Humanism and Natural Philosophy: Renaissance Debates on Matter, Life
and the Soul</i>. Leiden: Brill, 2011.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">———.
“The New Astral Medicine.” In <i>A Companion to Astrology in the Renaissance</i>,
edited by Brendan Dooley, 267–86. Leiden: Brill, 2014.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Iommi
Echeverría, Virginia. “Girolamo Fracastoro y la invención de la sífilis.” <i>História,
Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos</i> 17, no. 4 (December 2010): 877–84.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702010000400002.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Katinis,
Teodoro. “A Humanist Confronts the Plague: Ficino’s Consilio Contro La
Pestilentia.” <i>MLN</i> 125, no. 1 (2010): 72–83.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">———.
<i>Medicina e filosofia in Marsilio Ficino: Il Consilio contro la pestilenza</i>.
Ed. di Storia e Letteratura, 2007.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kohn,
George Childs. <i>Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence</i>. 3rd ed. New York:
Facts On File, 2008.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Monreal,
Ruth. “Eppur lo dice! Come si trasmette la sifilide nel poema didattico di
Girolamo Fracastoro.” <i>Studi Umanistici Piceni</i> 23 (2003): 179–89.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Müller-Jahncke,
Wolf-Dieter. <i>Astrologisch-magische Theorie und Praxis in der Heilkunde der
frühen Neuzeit</i>. Sudhoffs Archiv, Beiheft 25. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1985.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Palmer,
Ada. “Black Death, COVID, and Why We Keep Telling the Myth of a Renaissance
Golden Age and Bad Middle Ages – Ex Urbe.” Accessed July 14, 2020.
https://www.exurbe.com/black-death-covid-and-why-we-keep-telling-the-myth-of-a-renaissance-golden-age-and-bad-middle-ages/.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBibliography"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pastore,
Alessandro, and Enrico Peruzzi, eds. <i>Girolamo Fracastoro fra medicina,
filosofia e scienze della natura: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi in
occasione del 450. anniversario della morte, Verona-Padova 9-11 ottobre 2003</i>.
Firenze: Olschki, 2006.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bärbel
Frischmann, “Das Virus und die Angst,” <i>Information Philosophie</i>, no. 2
(2020): 8–15; “Covid-19 und die PhilosophInnen. Eine Übersicht über die mediale
Präsenz der Philosophie,” <i>Information Philosophie</i>, no. 2 (2020): 16–25.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Carlo Ginzburg, “Une
démocratie grégaire?,” <i>En attendant Nadeau</i> (blog), July 11, 2020, https://www.en-attendant-nadeau.fr/2020/07/12/democratie-gregaire-ginzburg/.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Georg Agricola, <i>De
peste libri tres</i> (Basel: Froben, 1554), 10:</span><span lang="EN-US"> “pestis est lues febrilis, diris malis, quae simul cum ea incident,
infesta, contagiosa, plurimis hominibus, aut certe multis uno eodemque tempore
perniciosa.” – For the purpose of this paper I will refrain from identifying
and comparing sources.</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Agricola, 10–11.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ada Palmer, “Black
Death, COVID, and Why We Keep Telling the Myth of a Renaissance Golden Age and
Bad Middle Ages – Ex Urbe,” accessed July 14, 2020,
https://www.exurbe.com/black-death-covid-and-why-we-keep-telling-the-myth-of-a-renaissance-golden-age-and-bad-middle-ages/.</span><span lang="EN-US"> On epidemics and medicine at the time cf. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sabine Herrmann, <i>Tomaso
Rangone: Arzt, Astrologe und Mäzen im Italien der Renaissance</i> (Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2017); for a list of occurrences of the plague see
George Childs Kohn, <i>Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence</i>, 3rd ed. (New
York: Facts On File, 2008), 475 f.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Marsilio Ficino, <i>Consilio
contro la pestilenzia</i>, ed. Enrico Musacchio (Bologna: Cappelli, 1983) (the
introduction by Giampaolo Moraglia scetches the history of medical advice
regarding the plague); Teodoro Katinis, <i>Medicina e filosofia in Marsilio
Ficino: Il Consilio contro la pestilenza</i> (Ed. di Storia e Letteratura,
2007), also contains the text; for practical reasons I cite the former edition.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">For an interpretation
in English see Teodoro Katinis, “A Humanist Confronts the Plague: Ficino’s
Consilio Contro La Pestilentia,” <i>MLN</i> 125, no. 1 (2010): 72–83.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An informative but
dismissive explanation of theriac is Donald Beecher, “Ficino, Theriaca and the
Stars,” in <i>Marsilio Ficino: His Theology, His Philosophy, His Legacy</i>,
ed. Michael J. B. Allen, Valery Rees, and Martin Davies (Leiden: Brill, 2001),
243–56.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Marsilio Ficino, <i>Three
Books on Life</i>, ed. Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark (Binghamton, N.Y.:
Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1989), bk. III 12, p. 302.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On Ficino’s medical
theories in connection with astrology cf. Susanne Beiweis, “Saturn und
Talisman: Die heterogenen Begriffe der Magie am Beispiel von Marsilio Ficinos
‘De vita libri tres’” (Phil. Diss., Wien, 2015); Susanne K. Beiweis, “‘Naturam
Ars Imitatur’: Magical Images within Marsilio Ficino’s <i>De Vita Libri Tres</i>,”
<i>Verbum - Analecta Neolatina</i> 19, no. 1–2 (2018): 155–80,
http://www.verbum-analectaneolatina.hu/en_issue.php?issue=XIX/2018/1-2.</span><span lang="EN-US"> On Renaissance astro-medicine </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wolf-Dieter
Müller-Jahncke, <i>Astrologisch-magische Theorie und Praxis in der Heilkunde
der frühen Neuzeit</i>, Sudhoffs Archiv, Beiheft 25 (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1985);
Hiro Hirai, “The New Astral Medicine,” in <i>A Companion to Astrology in the
Renaissance</i>, ed. Brendan Dooley (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 267–86.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Girolamo Fracastoro,
“Syphilis sive de morbo gallico,” in <i>Latin poetry</i>, trans. James Gardner
(Cambridge, Mass.: The I Tatti Renaissance Library, Harvard University Press,
2013), bk. I, 32–131.</span><span lang="EN-US"> On
Fracastoro see the comprehensive volume </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alessandro Pastore
and Enrico Peruzzi, eds., <i>Girolamo Fracastoro fra medicina, filosofia e
scienze della natura: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi in occasione
del 450. anniversario della morte, Verona-Padova 9-11 ottobre 2003</i>
(Firenze: Olschki, 2006).</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fracastoro,
“Syphilis,” bk. I, 83–85; 182–185.</span><span lang="EN-US"> The constellations that facilitated the spread are discussed lines
197-260. </span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fracastoro, bk. I,
382–420.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fracastoro, bk. III,
174–193.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fracastoro, bk. III,
310–332.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Fracastoro, bk. II, 105-115:</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> “Tu lecto ne crede, gravi ne crede sopori, his alitur vitium … Parce
tamen Veneri, mollesque ante omnia vita concubitus …” It is possible that <i>molles
concubitus</i> refers to pederasty (cf. 1 Cor 6:10), abhorred by Venus and
young girls – but that is not important here. On sexual transmission of
syphilis in this and other passages see </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ruth Monreal, “Eppur
lo dice! Come si trasmette la sifilide nel poema didattico di Girolamo
Fracastoro,” <i>Studi Umanistici Piceni</i> 23 (2003): 179–89.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hironymus
Fracastorius, “De contagionibus et contagiosis morbis et eorum curatione,” in <i>Opera
omnia</i> (Venetiis: Iunta, 1584), 77r–110v; bk. II, cap. 2, p. 91r and 92r.</span><span lang="EN-US"> Book III, chapter 10 explains therapies. On the development of
Fracastoro’s theories see </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Virginia Iommi
Echeverría, “Girolamo Fracastoro y la invención de la sífilis,” <i>História,
Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos</i> 17, no. 4 (December 2010): 877–84,
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702010000400002.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jean Fernel, <i>On
the Hidden Causes of Things</i>, ed. John Henry and John M. Forrester, trans.
John M. Forrester, [De abditis rerum causis, Lat.-Engl.] (Leiden: Brill, 2005),
bk. II, chap. 14, p. 614.</span><span lang="EN-US"> On
Fernel’s theory of medicine see “Jean Fernel and His Christian Platonic
Interpretation of Galen” in </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hiro Hirai, <i>Medical
Humanism and Natural Philosophy: Renaissance Debates on Matter, Life and the
Soul</i> (Leiden: Brill, 2011), chap. 2.</span><span lang="EN-US"> And compared with Ficino and Fracastoro: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hiro Hirai, “Ficin,
Fernel et Fracastor autour du concept de semence: Aspects platoniciens de
seminaria,” in <i>Girolamo Fracastoro fra medicina, filosofia e scienze della
natura: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi in occasione del 450.
anniversario della morte, Verona-Padova 9-11 ottobre 2003</i>, ed. Alessandro
Pastore and Enrico Peruzzi (Firenze: Olschki, 2006), 245–60.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel, <i>On the
Hidden Causes of Things</i>, 620.</span><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel,
620–22.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-no-proof: yes;">Fernel, bk. II, chap. 8,
pp. 510-512:</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> “In medicinae physiologia satis quidem mihi esse
duco, si humani corporis compositionem ac structuram singularumque partium functiones
et usus mente consequar: parum curans, sive illarum causas rerum primordiis et
temperament, sive diviniori origini attribuas.”</span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel,
bk. II, chap. 12, pp. 562–564.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel,
bk. II, chap. 12, p. 568.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel,
bk. II, chap. 12, p. 572.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> The editors of the text appear to
ridicule occult qualities disregarding their role as a prelude to empiricism: </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel,
25.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;">Cf. </span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Paul
Richard Blum, “Qualitas occulta,” in <i>Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie</i>,
vol. 7 (Basel: Schwabe, 1989), 1743–47.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Garamond",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fernel, <i>On the
Hidden Causes of Things</i>, bk. II, chap. 8, p. 496.</span><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"></span></p>
</div>
</div>
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{page:WordSection1;}</style></p>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-29465437179331630532020-03-26T22:28:00.002-07:002020-11-23T06:51:21.293-08:00Paul Richard Blum: Teleology in Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Michael Polanyi<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 align="center" style="break-after: avoid; color: #4f81bd; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 10pt 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;">
<span lang="EN-US">Teleology in Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Michael Polanyi<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Paul Richard Blum</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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published as: <span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2px;">Teleology in Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Michael Polanyi, in </span><i style="text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2px;">Paulo Floss octogenario. Filosofie v dejinach a soucasnosti</i><span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2px;">, ed.</span><span class="s1" style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2px;"> Otakar Bureš, Lenka Jedličková, and Tomáš </span><span style="text-align: left; text-indent: -14.2px;">Nejeschleba (Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, 2020), 142–161.</span></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="break-after: avoid; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 10pt 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Almost at the same time, the Jesuit scientist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) and the scientist Michael Polanyi (1891-1976) wrote works that addressed the phenomena at the basis of the real world that escape empirical scrutiny. Teilhard, as a paleontologist professionally delving deep in the prehistoric past of human existence, searched for a guiding principle of human reality. Polanyi as a chemist diagnosed that personal satisfaction drives theories in natural sciences. Both came to the conclusion, however diverse, that <i>aiming as such </i>drives the development of human understanding. Consequently, humanity is embedded in an objective teleology, which the individual thinker, as well as human community perform and sustain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.3in; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.3in;">
This was a lecture at Letní Filosofická Škola <span class="s2" style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-kerning: none;">Víra, věda, kultura Velké Losiny 5. – 15. July 2019 https://letnifilosofickaskola.webnode.cz/zaznamy/</span></div>
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Audio available at </div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.3in; text-indent: -0.3in;">
<span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 12px;">https://archive.org/details/audio2019/Paul+Richard+Blum%3A+Teleology+in+Pierre+Teilhard+de+Chardin+and+Michael+Polanyi.ogg</span></div><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="font-family: Georgia, serif; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.3in; text-indent: -0.3in;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Now published: </span>Paul Richard Blum, “Teleology in Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Michael Polanyi,” in <i>Paulo Floss octogenario. Filosofie v dejinach a soucasnosti</i>, ed. Otakar Bureš, Lenka Jedličková, and Tomáš Nejeschleba (Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, 2020), 142–61.</div><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.3in; text-indent: -0.3in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;">https://www.academia.edu/44435168/Teleology_in_Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin_and_Michael_Polanyi </span></div>
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PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-67902373782490302612018-08-30T16:21:00.000-07:002018-08-30T16:23:17.946-07:00Frederick Douglass and Philosophy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Frederick Douglass and Philosophy</b></div>
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By Paul Richard Blum (Loyola
University Maryland)</div>
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<i>Presented at</i> </div>
<h1>
<a href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/73374/announcements/182664/375-years-african-american-presence-maryland" target="_blank">375 Years of African American Presence in Maryland</a></h1>
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Abstract</div>
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Frederick Douglass’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i> was intended and has been read
as a first-hand document on slavery and the power of an individual to gain
freedom. It contains a wealth of information on the structure of American
slavery and the means to overcome it. For a philosopher, the first-person narrative
also contains valuable reflections and indications on what it means to be human
in spite of, and in the face of, systematic de-humanization. In the first
place, Douglass gives indications on what constitutes human dignity, which is
contextualized in religion and the self, body and mind, altruism and morality.
Being (potentially) sold and selling one’s physical labor turns into an
instrument of liberation. The famous master-slave dialectics is depicted in
Hegelian patterns in the fight with Covey. Resistance appears as a
quasi-natural feature of being human. Therefore, this document of a Maryland
slave and fugitive can be read as a document of far-reaching topics of
philosophy that merit to be generalized. Such a reading has the effect that the
reader cannot escape by way of historicism (‘that happened to that man back
then’) but can apply the fruits of Douglass’ reflections to the understanding
of humanity as such.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
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The somewhat flippant title of my paper, Frederick
Douglass and Philosophy, can have two meanings, or even three. The first would
be: What was Douglass’ philosophy (if he had any)? The second would be: How
would philosophers situate Douglass’ writings and actions in the great network
of available philosophies? And this meaning may in part overlap with the first,
because Douglass did not produce any work that explicitly and intentionally was
meant to be a philosophical work; hence we would need to cast a net of known
philosophical methods and systems over his life and work and see what we find.
On the way we might even find particular philosophical sources that can be
highlighted as shaping his thinking and acting. This second approach to reading
Douglass philosophically has been exercised occasionally, for instance by Frank
Kirkland, Roderick Stewart, and Timothy Golden.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
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Bringing philosophy and Douglass
together in this way helps one understand his role and his personal stature
and, at the same time, it puts philosophies to a test by measuring the
reasoning of an outstanding activist and witness of his times with
philosophical theories, and then probing those theories with one real
experience. Such a merger of human agency with theory is commonly called ‘practical
philosophy’ or ethics and political philosophy. Since Douglass was embedded in
the abolitionist movement,<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
even before the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative of the Life of
Frederick Douglass </i>of 1845 and ever since, it is obvious that his
production was meant to be political and moral. This abolitionist movement was
inevitably educated by Christianity and the Enlightenment – whatever the
tensions between the two might be, otherwise. Consequently, Douglass and his
audience reveal those modes of argument, understanding, theory, and plausibility.
Finding Kantianism and Christianity in Frederick Douglass is therefore like
pressing murky water out of a sponge, while it is certainly more important to find
out what it was the sponge was meant to wipe. For instance, when Douglass said:</div>
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[i]f I do not misinterpret the
feelings and philosophy of my white fellow-countrymen generally, they wish us
to understand distinctly and fully that they have no other use for us whatever,
than to coin dollars out of our blood[,]</div>
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then it is obvious that he blames the slaveholder for
exploiting fellow-citizens with a mentality of alchemy, which mysteriously
turns liquid blood into malleable gold; and the abolitionist thus throws the
white citizens back into the prescientific darkness while claiming for himself
the “fundamental principles of the republic”, that is, the French-revolutionary
constitution of society.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
But the orator is not philosophizing; he is agitating against bigotry and
injustice. That is also expressly said in the second autobiography <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">My Bondage and My Freedom</i>, when Douglass
reflects on his intellectual growth since his liberation. Commenting on the
suggestion of a friend, “Give us the facts, … we take care of the philosophy,”
he retorts: “It did not entirely satisfy me to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">narrate</i> wrongs; I felt like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">denouncing
</i>them.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
Narration was his originary goal and remained his method – agitation was now
his framework.</div>
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So, if I had to compile a book for
the book series “… <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">and Philosophy</i>” (like
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Hobbit and Philosophy</i>), I
certainly would include chapters like “Was FD a Kantian?”, “FD against Hobbes,”
“The Douglass-Hegel Dialectic,”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
“What would Aristotle say about Slavery after Reading the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>?”, or “Fear and Trembling with Douglass,” and so on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But that is not what I am planning to do. </div>
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<h1 style="line-height: 200%;">
A third approach to philosophy and Frederick
Douglass</h1>
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Therefore, I suggest a third way of looking at “Douglass
and Philosophy”, and that is reading his and other slave narratives as
documents of humanity. </div>
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One might object that the notion of
a ‘slave narrative’ appears to enforce the claim that the authors were slaves
rather than free individuals; and the term appears to belittle the quality of
the documents.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, being or having been held as slaves and all the injury thereof is the very
theme of the documents in question; and ‘narrative’ is a generic term,
specifically adopted by Frederick Douglass, that covers any quality of literary
work by simply stating that the author is speaking from the first-person point
of view. In saying ‘documents,’ I mean they need to be taken as testimonies rather
than theories – that is, as primary sources for a potential philosophy of
humanity. </div>
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When telling of the sorrow and joy
contained and expressed in slave songs, Douglass remarks in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>:</div>
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This they would sing, as a chorus,
to words which to many would seem unmeaning jargon, but which, nevertheless,
were full of meaning to themselves. I have sometimes thought that the mere
hearing of those songs would do more to impress some minds with the horrible
character of slavery, than the reading of whole volumes of philosophy on the
subject could do.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
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With an analogous method I hope to distill, not quite
a volume, but an essay of philosophy from his slave narrative, a philosophy
that does not supplant nor suppress the original intent of his writing but
makes his work philosophically understandable. But immediately one has to ask:
what is ‘philosophical’ and ‘understandable’? Here I suggest reducing the
philosophical question from the wide net of influences and traditions and from
the variety of philosophical disciplines and methods to that of philosophical
anthropology. The lead question is now: What does Douglass’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i> say about humanity? My weak
justification for that approach is the recurrence of the notion of “human
nature” in the later elaborations of his autobiography, when from the
comparatively terse narration of the major events of his life Douglass ventured
into didactic, propagandistic, and political aims of his view on his “Life and
Times”.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
In the prefatory letter to his second autobiography, <i>My Bondage and My
Freedom</i> of 1855, he states: “<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">I
have never placed my opposition to slavery on a basis so narrow as my own
enslavement, but rather upon the indestructible and unchangeable laws of human
nature, every one of which is perpetually and flagrantly violated by the slave
system.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
Most importantly, introducing the pivotal episode of the fight with the
slave-breaker Covey (more about it below), Douglass emphasizes its
anthropological significance: “the change in my condition was owing to causes
which may help the reader to a better understanding of human nature, when
subjected to the terrible extremities of slavery.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
Again, concluding the report on this “turning point” he states: </span></div>
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I WAS A MAN NOW. It recalled to life
my crushed self-respect and my self-confidence, and inspired me with a renewed
determination to be A FREEMAN. A man, without force, is without the essential
dignity of humanity. Human nature is so constituted, that it
cannot honor a helpless man, although it can pity him; and
even this it cannot do long, if the signs of power do not arise.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
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Later, in chapter 19, we read: “It is the interest and
business of slaveholders to study human nature, with a view to practical
results, and many of them attain astonishing proficiency in discerning the
thoughts and emotions of slaves.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
Aristotle would have been pleased reading this, for he had established that the
interest of the master and that of the slave coincide: “the union of natural
ruler and natural subject [exist] for the sake of security <span style="font-family: "ms 明朝"; mso-ascii-font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family: Georgia;">(</span>for
he that can foresee with his mind is naturally ruler and naturally master, and
he that can do these things with his body is subject and naturally a slave; so
that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">master and slave have the same
interest</i>).”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
It would be worth considering whether or not Aristotle, too, was saying that
with irony. </div>
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In other words, when revisiting his
own life and story, Douglass became aware that human nature is the thread that
holds the events together and also that human nature ties the slave experience
in discordant unison together with both the slaveholders and his abolitionist
readers. If addressing humanity counts as a philosophical enterprise, then
philosophy may even be acknowledged as Douglass’s “authorial intention,”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a>
at least in his later works. </div>
<h1 style="line-height: 200%;">
Slave narratives and philosophy</h1>
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When I suggest reading the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative </i>as a representative of the literary genre known as American
Slave Narrative philosophically, I am aware that this is not a philosophical
but a literary genre that comprises the following components: it reports in
first person the life of a slave in North America from around the Civil War (<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1861-1865) until the end of
the 19<sup>th</sup> century. Many of these slave narratives were put down in
writing not by the slaves themselves but by a helpful person, many of whom were
white Protestants. It is striking that many slave narratives have a woman as a
hero. All those stories were narrated and published with an abolitionist
agenda, that is to say, with the goal in mind to support abolition of slavery
in North America through exposing the cruelty and injustice of slavery with personal
examples. The first person perspective is therefore a crucial literary tool;
rhetorical tropes include vividness of storytelling, pathos, details, and also
exaggeration. The rhetorical outlook does not disparage the content; on the
contrary, the note takers of the narratives, if not the authors themselves,
thought it most compelling to have the people speak for themselves. They
intended to impress their audience for the sake of the cause of anti-slavery.
Nevertheless, we as readers who are no longer the target audience may well
profit from the first person perspective by taking seriously what the speakers
bring forward about their life and experience. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Some of the slave narratives are so
eloquent, most conspicuously that of Harriett Jacobs, that doubts of their
authenticity were raised.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a>
Also an early reaction to Frederick Douglass’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i> by one Mr. Thompson flatly denied that the former slave
could have “some knowledge of the rules of grammar, could write so correctly.”
However, faced with the factual existence of the book, the accuser surmises,
“to make the imposition at all creditable, the composer has labored to write it
in as plain a style as possible.” Whereas Douglass responds with a proud “Frederick
the Freeman is a very different person from Frederick the Slave,” we may ponder
the contortion made by the slanderer: an impostor pretending to be an
illiterate slave must have played to be a simpleton to the effect that any
factual inaccuracy will unmask the forgery. This is where Douglass places his
wedge: all alleged falsehoods are true, precisely because the events are
outrageous; hence the narrative is as authentic as its author.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
We should pay attention to the fact that Douglass does not bother explaining
how it was possible for him to write, and in an elaborate oratory at that, for
that is all in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>;<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>he rather emphasizes the very message
of the book that makes it a testimony of philosophical anthropology: “You have
seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a>
As a teacher I would say, Mr. Thompson, you haven’t done the reading! We should
also not forego another paradox in Mr. Thompson’s accusation in that he precisely
fulfilled the abolitionists’ expectation of the target audience in assuming
that a former slave cannot possibly have erudition. As Douglass’s friends
advised him: “Better have a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">little </i>of
the plantation manner of speech than not; ‘tis not best that you seem too
learned.” Authenticity means the same both for friend and the foe of slavery;
but for Douglass, the slave narrator, it means his self: “I must speak just the
word that seemed to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">me</i> the word to be
spoken by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">me</i>.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a>
Little or no ‘plantation,’ ‘plain’ or rhetorical – philosophy is a speech act. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
With this observation we enter the
problem of the reliability of such slave narratives, both as to details and to
the general direction of the plot. These are questions that can only be addressed
for each specific text. But the general hermeneutical principles of reading
historical documents apply. To put it shortly: if something is unusual, it is
probably authentic and hence deserves special attention. On the other hand,
recurring motifs and themes indicate recurring experiences. For instance, if
many slave narratives state that the slave is ignorant of his or her date and
place of birth, then in an individual text this may be used in a tropical
manner; however, it has become a trope because, factually, most slaves do not
know their birth dates. In that sense, this trope is worth considering under a
particular perspective. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
The perspective of my study of
American slave narratives is nevertheless that of philosophy. Regardless of the
specific body of sources, the philosophical question I am pursuing is that of
philosophical anthropology: what does it mean to be human? In ordinary
philosophical anthropology, the answer is derived from philosophical tenets
such as the body-soul compound (man is an animal with reason) and from
metaphysical hypostases (man is the intermediary level between pure spirits and
matter). Sometimes a philosophical anthropology is based on the life and
existence of humans and refers to their common way of behaving (man is a social
animal, humanity equals existence, etc.). However, it occurred to me that –
with the help of slave narratives – one could suspend the answer to the
question: “What does it mean to be human?” and observe humans asserting their
humanness. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Methodologically speaking, the task
is not to apply theoretical anthropology to a given group of human beings. For
instance, assuming that humans are social animals, one could find realizations
of social patterns in any kindergarten, or the emergence of solidarity in a coalmine.
Rather, since philosophical anthropology is philosophy in the first place, it
has to find its object of study first and then elevate it to the level of
abstraction at the extent of which the concepts build themselves on a level
that does not apply merely to the empirical object of study but to the essence
of it, that is, to the essential properties of being human.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a>
In our context that requires avoiding to project any known philosophical system
on Douglass and, rather, finding the philosophy he conveys in his writings. Slave
narratives are utterly contingent products of individual human beings. But
these human beings speak about their being human, even and preeminently when
they speak about pain, sex, hunger, or gratification. They speak to the
audience with the intent to assert their being humans and therefore their being
exempt of slavery. The latter part is to be taken for granted, today. The first
part, the assertion to be humans, is a possible source of philosophical
anthropology. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
More radically speaking: I suggest approaching
philosophical anthropology from outside humanity, namely from a point of view
as though humanity were not something known. An account of philosophical
anthropology from outside humanity also entails to philosophize from outside
philosophical methods, provided we know of human nature predominantly from
philosophical definitions of humanness. The insistence of the autobiographer and
the zeal of the abolitionist show pathways to understanding humanity
philosophically from sources that are not intended to be philosophical; at the
same time, they show that humanity may be captured at those points where
humanity is questioned or outright denied. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Denial of humanity is, by all
standards, one common denominator of slavery; even the slaveholders do not deny
that. At times, to be human is denied explicitly, sometimes, performatively. Therefore,
it is appropriate for an abolitionist to quote the battle cry of slaves: “Am I
not a Man and a Brother?” as it had circulated in early 19<sup>th</sup>-century
England.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a>
But the easy answer from the slaveholder was: “No!” Therefore we need to find a
more complex response in the slave narratives. As a matter of fact, slaves like
the early Douglass rarely thematized their being humans, but they asserted it
in the actions they narrated. This is where philosophical interpretation
starts. As 20<sup>th</sup>-century philosophical anthropology teaches,<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a>
to be human means to position oneself in the world with fellow humans. However,
that is only an elementary feature of humanness; it becomes philosophy only when
analyzed and interpreted philosophically. Every human assesses environment and
experience, but that turns into philosophy when it is interpreted as the peculiar
agency that characterizes a human being. We also can safely say that it is this
sort of anthropology that defines humans as essentially “eccentric,” as Helmuth
Plessner did. Consequently it also defines humanity as a non-given: the essence
of being human consists in questioning one’s own humanity. For assessing the
world and fellowship amounts to taking them as ‘given’ but not for granted – after
all, granted by which authority and to whom? </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
This is why I suggest reading
testimonies of humans who, by definition, were denied humanity. Obviously, the
first person (the I) is the starting point of any investigation into human
nature. This has been so at least since Augustine’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confessions</i>. In our case, the first person is the slave speaking of
himself or herself. While the narrative remains subjective, so to speak, the
message can be philosophically objectified insofar as I, the reader, am not the
subject of the story. However, as we will see in the case of Frederick
Douglass, the author of a slave narrative objectifies experience in search of
human dignity so that we as readers are factually invited to philosophize about
slave humanity. This is why the self-awareness that the narrator gains in a
narrative converges with understanding the philosophical nature of humanity.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
As I mentioned, of the three
versions of Frederick Douglass’ autobiography, the second and third turned into
elaborate books against the institution of slavery that increasingly departed
from the sheer telling of events in favor of readymade interpretations of how
the audience, the abolitionists, were to understand them. The author increasingly
‘processed’ his experiences. Nevertheless the brute facts that he tells of his
life as a slave give enough material to interpret philosophically. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
While reading through Douglass and
many other narratives, a list of recurring themes builds itself. Here I may
mention just a few: naming, home, religion, sex, property, and resistance.
Whatever the slaves deemed worth telling can be taken to be essential for their
understanding of themselves. Other things surprise the reader with some literary
experience by their absence: slaves lack most early childhood memories (while
being aware of this as a grave deficiency); they also rarely express
consciousness of time in all forms: elapsing time, future, or history. The
changes of seasons are structuring elements of their lives, as are the changes
of their masters – however, as far as I see, without any temporal index. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
In a nutshell, what emerges from
reading slave narratives that constitutes a philosophical anthropology? A
person is in search to affirm his/her identity with the help of names,
rudiments of family relations, masters, and those events that prove him/her an
agent. Religion, rarely within any denominational frame, is the immediate and
defining resource of meaning, consolation, hope, and justification. Home is
virulent through its absence; it is felt as a loss and a longing. Consequently,
to be ‘at home’ and to be ‘at peace with God’ converge. Religion is the virtual
home of humans. Family equally exerts an influence on the individual by way of endangerment
and as a virtual bond that overcomes the gritty reality. To be sold ‘down the
river’ does not only entail deterioration of work conditions, it is the
effective severance of human bonds. As unreal and ideal as the home is, so is
family that for which it is worth longing, fighting, or suffering. Childhood,
family bonds, and home constitute humanness by way of want. Sexual
relationships are worth mentioning only as sexual slavery, that is, the
exploitation by the slave owners. Any precariousness can be turned into a lever
of resistance; that is also true with sex. Harriet Jacobs, for instance,
deliberately accepts the courtship of a freeman, just to snub her master and to
frustrate his adulterous passes. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Frederick Douglass’s account of the
role of religion in slavery is exemplary, expressing the enlightened
perspective of an abolitionist. He commented upon the scarce permission for
slaves to observe the Christian holidays:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;">
I believe them to be among the most
effective means in the hands of the slaveholder in keeping down the spirit of
insurrection.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;">
He sees religious
feasts as “safety-valves”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a>
for the suppressed spirits of the slaves. On the other hand, the secret
meetings in which he discussed with fellow slaves the Scripture were at the
same time means of education and – within his narrative – the seed of
self-liberation. Many slave owners practiced religious apartheid: they
effectively segregated salvation. In showing such blatant inconsistency they
spurned the craving for the transcendent. From Douglass’ account it is obvious
that for the slave, critique of religion was not within reach; it appears to be
a post-liberation achievement, as is the case for Douglass himself. Upon
writing his autobiography he was able to observe that “after his conversion, [his
master] found religious sanction and support for his slaveholding cruelty.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a>
As a slave he ran twice a Sabbath school for the fellow slaves to learn “to
read the will of God,” as he whimsically explains, and he was not ashamed of
ascribing the beginning of his self-liberation to the use of a magic root,
which he obtained from a wise friend.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
On the theme of naming as an
essentially negative experience Douglass reported:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;">
The slave is a human being, divested
of all rights – reduced to the level of a brute – a mere “chattel” in the eye
of the law … – his name, which the “recording angel” may have enrolled in
heaven, among the blest, is impiously inserted in a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">master’s ledger, </i>with horses, sheep, and swine.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;">
In this theoretical
statement, Douglass locates the function of name between property, law, and
heaven. He takes for granted that a human being has a name, that the
individuality of the person must have a guardian, for instance an angel, and
that a name goes beyond bookkeeping. Let us assume the slaveholder knows all
that. This means that the denial of a personal name denies humanity to a
chattel-slave – ergo, a name is what makes up a human being.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Without engaging in Aristotle’s
famous definition of slaves as ‘tools with a soul’, it is obvious that slaves
were a specific kind of property, closer to domesticated animals than to dead
tools. It happens, but mostly in jest, that modern people give utilities a name
(especially cars, or very important devices); but to name a slave entails the
paradox of denying and recognizing the humanity of a slave. So it is
intuitively clear that the denial of a proper name instrumentalizes the slave,
while imposing a name on him or her is a second rate acknowledgment of the
status of the slave, superior to any tool, but on par with a pet or livestock.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
It is therefore possible to
speculate that African slaves, as they appeared in the life of farmers in
America, were immediately welcome as labor force, of course, but at the same
time perceived to be livestock. On livestock René Girard says: “The
domestication of animals requires that men keep them in their company and treat
them, not as wild animals, but as if they were capable of living near human
beings and leading a quasi-human existence.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a>
A very similar structure occurred in American slavery: the Africans inevitably
lived close to their masters so that they could not possibly be treated just as
tools; rather, they had to be granted a quasi-human level of life. One move to
keep the difference indelible was to deny the ownership of a name. It is also
intuitively obvious that this paradox of closeness at a reinforced distance
made the slave prone to victimization in the Girardian sense; but that is not
at issue here. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
We can glean here the importance of
names on the anthropological level. The first thing that should be noted is
that all slave narratives awkwardly refer to slaves not plainly by their names
(“there was Jack”, or “Jim”) but with the epithet “a slave named Jack.” It
seems to have been wired in the grammar of slave narrative that names are
always arbitrarily given and hence do not naturally and necessarily name one
unique individual. Jack as a person cannot be a slave; the topic of the story
is not Jack but the slave who happens to have that name.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Frederick Douglass changed his
names haphazardly, and eventually accepted one suggested incidentally by a
friend. Beyond the more sophisticated mechanisms of naming and necessity, we
may state that contingency and fortuitousness come to the forefront in slave
narratives. Interestingly, Frederick Douglass does not spend much time
explaining the first occasions when he changed his name; he simply states in a
footnote that at some point after his escape, he had changed his name from
Frederick Bailey to Johnson.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a>
He then explains that he had inherited the name Bailey from his parents, but he
dropped the additional middle names that were given to him by his mother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Immediately after his departure from
Baltimore, Frederick called himself Stanley – obviously a simple disguise. Then
he picked the name Johnson, which incidentally was also that of the couple that
received him in New Bedford. Since this name was all too common, he asked his
host to find him a new name, or rather, he “gave Mr. Johnson the privilege” to
do so: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;">
Mr. Johnson had just been reading
the ‘Lady of the Lake’ [a poem by Sir Walter Scott], and at once suggested that
my name be ‘Douglass.’ From that time until now I have been called ‘Frederick
Douglass;’ and as I am more widely known by that name than by either of the
others, I shall continue to use it as my own.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in;">
Douglass, as a
gifted writer, creates the punchline that emphasizes the claim that his name is
what <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">he actively </i>adopts rather than
being the object of adoption. A few lines earlier Douglass emphasizes that this
privilege of naming did not extend to his first name: “I must hold onto that
[first name], to preserve a sense of my identity.” It is surprising that
Douglass underlined the philosophical notion of personal identity that is secured
by a first name in the first autobiography only, whereas he emphasized the
heroic “virtues of the Douglas of Scotland” in the second and third
autobiographies.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
In this context, we may savor the
irony with which Douglass countered the criticism of an early reader, the
already mentioned Mr. A. C. C. Thompson, who doubted the narrative’s author’s
identity by stating he had known him as Frederick Bailey. Douglass retorted:
“You have completely tripped up the heels of your proslavery friends, and laid
them flat at my feet. You have done a piece of anti-slavery work, which no
anti-slavery man could do.” For the slanderer had unintentionally confirmed the
truthfulness of the narrative and the authority of the narrator.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a>
This response and counter-response shows in a nutshell the importance of
authorship for its impact on the audience. While the first name establishes the
self of the person during and beyond slavery, the inherited as well as the
‘given’/chosen penname corroborates the truth of the narrated facts. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
The first name is the person.
Everything else may be an add-on. Speaking of pictures and exterior
qualifications, Douglass said in a lecture on pictures (3 December 1861) that the
Catholic Church uses “symbolical representations.” “Remove from the church of
Rome her cunning illusions […] and her magical and entrancing power over men
would disappear.” And as an example he mentions: “Take the cross from before
the name of the archbishop – and he is James or John like the rest of us.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a>
For a former slave, to be ‘like the rest of us’ means all the world; that’s
what is in a name. Although it might lead astray from the main purpose of this
essay, a brief thought on Douglass’s portraits is in order. As the editors of
the book of portraits state, he was the most photographed man of 19<sup>th</sup>-century
America. The easy explanation for this is given in the just-quoted lecture in
which Douglass says with a hint of irony, “if an author’s face can possibly be
other than fine looking, the picture must be in the book, or the book be
considered incomplete.” (Let us be reminded that at his time, an African face
was certainly not ‘fine looking’ to everyone.) He even adds, just to complete
the self-mockery, a quotation from Lord Byron saying that “a man always looks
dead when his Biography is written” and adds: “The same is even more true when
his picture is taken.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a>
But that would not explain the effort of publishing one’s autobiography. In a
similar lecture on pictures (ca. 1865), Douglass declares with authority:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote" style="line-height: 200%;">
Again the books that we write and
the speeches that we make – what are they but extensions, amplifications and
shadows of ourselves, the peculiar elements of our individual manhood? </div>
<div class="NomalafterQuote">
He summarizes his theory that human speech is the very
humanity and personality of the speaker: “whatever may be the text, man is sure
to be the sermon.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a>
Thus, I hope, the digression on self-portraits comes full circle: having and
defending a personal name converges with first-person testimony – and with the
mere possibility to reach the audience. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Frederick Douglass, with a keen eye
for human nature, has written a monument to slave resistance in the description
of his standoff with his master. Let us remind ourselves that for Douglass’s
fellow slaves it was “considered as being bad enough to be a slave <span style="font-size: 3.0pt; line-height: 200%;">; </span>but to be a poor man’s slave
was deemed a disgrace indeed,” because slaves were trained to see themselves ‘transferring’
the personal value of their master upon themselves.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a>
To become conscious of the derivative nature of the self was an important step
towards inner emancipation. Hence, to despise a slave owner could of itself be
an act of rebellion long before any attempt at violence or evasion could only be
envisioned. This is the background against which we should read Douglass’s
brawl with Mr. Covey, as narrated in the tenth chapter.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a>
He alerts his reader about the importance of the event: “You have seen how a
man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a>
Of course, it was the individual slave Frederick who was ‘made a man’, and
there may be implications regarding slave masculinity, but the event is also
symbolic as it depicts an essential feature of being a man in the sense of
being human. Later, as I quoted above, he extended the meaning of this fight to
the nature of humanity. Still, I am not claiming to offer an exhaustive
interpretation; rather, this event that has been recognized by a vast
literature as emblematic is just a sample of how philosophy can be drawn from a
narrative.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
As Mr. Covey, the slave-breaker,
tried to whip Douglass, “[h]e held on to me, and I to him.” The slave manages
to get at the master’s throat “causing the blood to run”. (71) This standoff, I
think, is crucial. The first slave who happened to pass by tried to help his
master, but was kicked off by Douglass, which had the almost comical effect
that Covey’s “courage quailed” and he asked the slave if he “meant to persist
in his resistance”.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a>
What a question! The next slave flatly refused to interfere, using the argument
that he was not hired “to help whip” another slave. So we have the violent
defeat of one slave and the legalistic opposition of another surrounding the
stalemate. This is the point at which the slave breaker gives up “saying that
if I had not resisted, he would not have whipped me half so much.” Douglass
adds immediately that Covey had not whipped him at all. Covey becomes
ridiculous through his childish after-threat of tormenting only “half so much”
leaving it open what the other half would have looked like.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
What Covey must have realized
without understanding was the definite turn of superiority. In Douglass’s
words: “he had drawn no blood from me, but I had from him.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a>
The brawl made it physically visible that the master was a coward and the slave
‘a man’. We should notice that Douglass did not beat his master; the standoff
was all he needed to assert his position: when two people get even they may
return to their natural humanity. As Lewis Gordon observed: “The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">physical</i> struggle dragged Covey into a
moment of equilibrium; it was a point at which the only way for any of them to
survive was by moving <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">upward</i>.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a>
That is, the impasse opened the way back to humanity. The slave-breaker’s fault
was not violence as such but the inherent cowardice that consists in denying a
fellow human a chance to be human. Therefore it was sufficient for the slave to
exert as much violence as needed to show equality on the level of physical
competition. Once again, what broke Covey’s ability to subdue Douglass was the
confluence of three types of resistance: the non-fatal violent back fighting,
the physical defeat of one slave by another, and the rational verbal defiance
of another slave. These might be the major components of all and any resistance
and rebellion. We should not be surprised seeing Douglass summarize the meaning
of this moment in a hymnal religious tone: “I felt as I never felt before. It
was a glorious resurrection, from the tomb of slavery, to the heaven of
freedom.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[44]</span></span></span></span></a>
The restoration of the human essence is expressed, if not caused, by the act of
resistance. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Later, Douglass concluded that
resistance as such might also persuade slaveholders to renounce on slavery by
appealing to their conscience when they learn to perceive slaves as not
voluntarily submitting to their control, thus breaking the vicious circle in
which slaves admit to being inferior through being submissive.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[45]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, I think this is not a moral appeal but one that is rooted in the
structure of self-assertion. “I did not hesitate to let it be known of me, that
the white man who expected to succeed in whipping, must also succeed in killing
me.” This concluding remark to the Covey episode<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[46]</span></span></span></span></a>
may be read as a challenge, but it actually says that slavery (being whipped)
is the negation of humanity (being killed). Hence resistance may be just, may
be moral, may be a psychological urge, a habit, a duty, or a last resort – in
the anthropological sense it is the feature of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">being non-denied to exist</i>. In Douglass’s terms it is a resurrection
before death. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
This brings us to general
conclusions. Religion, onomastic identity, and resistance take on very strange
forms on the level of slavery; and it is this we can learn from the slave
narratives and the facts they convey. As we saw, critique of religion requires
religious freedom. We may also state that onomastic identity is an absolute
requirement of being human, so much that it does <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">de facto</i> not depend on a legitimate name-giver. Ultimately humans
are baptized as wanderers on this earth. And resistance and rebellion? In slave
narratives we see that morality is not a condition of being human; it comes
only after humanity ceases being questioned. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
Reading Frederick Douglass’
autobiography as a non-disciplinary philosophical text yields philosophical
insights that are not standard but that are in search for philosophical
categories that create a frame of understanding. Even if authors of slave
narratives had had an academic education in philosophy, they would have set
priorities very much at odds with the top ranking philosophical questions in
the schools. Since they had been factually prevented from academic instruction,
they also were exonerated from rebelling against the mainstream. Their
rebellion was existentially human – and in that sense it was practical
philosophy. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
This study is a result of research funded by the Czech Science Foundation as
the project GA ČR 14-37038G «Between Renaissance and Baroque: Philosophy and
Knowledge in the Czech Lands within the Wider European Context»</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
Timothy J. Golden, “From Epistemology to Ethics: Theoretical and Practical
Reason in Kant and Douglass,” <i>Journal of Religious Ethics</i> 40, no. 4
(2012): 603–628; Frank M. Kirkland, “Enslavement, Moral Suasion, and Struggles
for Recognition: Frederick Douglass’s Answer to the Question - ‘What Is
Enlightenment?,’” in <i>Frederick Douglass: A Critical Reader</i>, ed. Bill E.
Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1999),
243–310; Roderick M. Stewart, “The Claims of Frederick Douglass Philosophically
Considered,” in <i>Frederick Douglass: A Critical Reader</i>, ed. Bill E.
Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1999),
145–72 (with methodical observations, 145-148). Cf. also the “Introduction” to
this volume by Lawson and Kirkland, pp. 1-17, and Howard McGary and Bill E.
Lawson, <i>Between Slavery and Freedom: Philosophy and American Slavery</i>
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
Nilgün Anadolu-Okur, <i>Dismantling Slavery: Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd
Garrison, and Formation of the Abolitionist Discourse, 1841-1851</i>
(Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 2016). Testimonies are available
in the many volumes of Frederick Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers</i>,
ed. John W. Blassingame et al., Series 1-3 (New Haven [Conn.]: Yale University
Press, 1999). Cf. John Stauffer, “Douglass’s Self-Making and the Culture of
Abolitionism,” in <i>The Cambridge Companion to Frederick Douglass</i>, ed.
Maurice S. Lee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 12–30.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, “Excerpt” of a speech May 1853, in Julia Griffiths, ed., <i>Autographs
for Freedom</i>, vol. [2] (Auburn; Rochester: Alden, Beardsley; Wanzer,
Beardsley, 1854), 251–255; 252f. Also as “A Nation in the Midst of a Nation: An
Address delivered in New York (11 may 1853)” in Douglass, <i>The Frederick
Douglass Papers</i>, Series 1, vol. 2, pp. 423-440, quotation on p. 425 .</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, “My Bondage and My Freedom,” in <i>Autobiographies</i>, The
Library of America: 68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), chap. XXIII, 367.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
Actually, this title is already taken: Cynthia Willett, “The Master-Slave
Dialectic: Hegel vs. Douglass,” in <i>Subjugation and Bondage: Critical Essays
on Slavery and Social Philosophy</i>, ed. Tommy Lee Lott (Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, 1998), 151–70.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
So Nilgün Anadolu-Okur in her presentation at this conference; she suggested to
call these works ‘autobiographies.’ Structural observations in Robert B.
Stepto, “Narration, Authentication, and Authorial Control in Frederick
Douglass’ <i>Narrative</i> of 1845,” in <i>Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism</i>, ed. William L. Andrews
and William S. McFeely (New York: Norton, 1996), 146–57; William L. Andrews, <i>To
Tell a Free Story: The First Century of Afro-American Autobiography, 1760-1865</i>
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), chap. 1, 1–31:"The First Century
of Afro-American Autobiography: Notes towards a Definition of a Genre; chapt.
4, 97-166: “The Performance of Slave Narrative in the 1840s.”</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American
Slave, Written by Himself,” in <i>Autobiographies</i>, The Library of America:
68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), chap. II, 23 f. – I will quote the
three autobiographies from this edition with citation of chapters so that
quotations may be found in any other edition. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
These were the first editions of the three autobiographies: Frederick Douglass,
<i>Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</i> (Boston:
Anti-slavery Office, 1845); Frederick Douglass, <i>My Bondage and My Freedom:
Part I - Life as a Slave, Part II - Life as a Freeman</i> (New York: Miller,
Orton & Mulligan, 1855); Frederick Douglass, <i>Life and Times of Frederick
Douglass</i> (Hartford, Conn.: Park Pub., 1884).</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Bondage,” 105. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, chap. XVI, 270; cf. Frederick Douglass, “Life and Times of Frederick
Douglass Written by Himself,” in <i>Autobiographies</i>, The Library of
America: 68 (New York: Library of America, 1994), chap. XVI, 575. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Bondage,” chap. XVII, 286. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. XIX, 307.</span> </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>
Aristotle, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Politics</i> I, 1252a, <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">translated
by H. Rackham</span> (http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg035.perseus-eng1:1.1252a)<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">;</span>
more literally: “… the same [thing] benefits the master and the slave”.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a>
Stewart, “The Claims of Frederick Douglass Philosophically Considered”, 148.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a>
Harriet A. Jacobs, <i>Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself</i>,
ed. Jean Fagan Yellin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987); Jean
Fagan Yellin, “Written By Herself: Harriet Jacobs’ Slave Narrative,” <i>American
Literature</i> 53, no. 3 (November 1981): 479–86.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers. Series Two:
Autobiographical Writings</i>, ed. John W. Blassingame, John R. McKivigan, and
Peter P. Hinks, vol. 1: Narrative (New Haven [Conn.]: Yale University Press,
1999), 154 f. and 158; the exchange is also in Frederick Douglass, <i>Narrative
of the Life of Frederick Douglass: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism</i>,
ed. William L. Andrews and William S. McFeely (New York: Norton, 1996), 88–96.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 60.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Bondage,” chap. XXIII, 367. The context is the same as in “we will
take care of the philosophy,” quoted above. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a>
On the problems of this terminology, which is not topical here, see Teresa
Robertson and Philip Atkins, “Essential vs. Accidental Properties,” in <i>The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2016,
2016, http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/essential-accidental/.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a>
The divulged image of a slave exclaiming “Am I not a Man and a Brother” was
designed by Josiah Wedgwood in the late 18<sup>th</sup> century in Scotland;
see Iain Whyte, <i>Scotland and the Abolition of Black Slavery, 1756-1838</i>
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), 75f.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a>
Max Scheler, <i>Die Stellung des Menschen im Kosmos.</i> (Darmstadt: Reichl, 1928);
English: Max Scheler, <i>The Human Place in the Cosmos</i>, trans. Manfred S.
Frings (Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press, 2009); Helmuth Plessner, <i>Die
Stufen des Organischen und der Mensch: Einleitung in die philosophische
Anthropologie</i> (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1928); there is no English translation;
a summary in Marjorie Grene, “Positionality in the Philosophy of Helmuth
Plessner,” <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i> 20, no. 2 (1966): 250–77.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a>
Cf. Andrews, <i>To Tell a Free Story</i>, 23, 103.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. IX, 66. Interestingly, this is also quoted in Sojourner
Truth, <i>Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave, Emancipated from
Bodily Servitude by the State of New York, in 1828</i>, ed. Olive Garrison
Gilbert (Boston: Printed for the author [J. B. Yerrinton and Son], 1850), 64.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. IX, 66. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, chap. IX, 52. The author felt compelled to justify his critical
remarks in the Appendix of the book, pp. 97-102. On religion in Douglass see Scott
C. Williamson, <i>The Narrative Life: The Moral and Religious Thought of
Frederick Douglass</i> (Macon, Ga: Mercer University Press, 2002).</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. IX, 53,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>X,
70-72 (Sabbath School); X, 63 (root). On the Sabbath school see Sterling
Stuckey, “‘My Burden Lightened’: Frederick Douglass, the Bible, and Slave
Culture,” in <i>African Americans and The Bible. Sacred Texts and Social
Textures</i>, ed. Vincent L. Wimbush (New York: Continuum, 2000), 251–65.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, “The Nature of Slavery”, in Howard Brotz, ed., <i>African-American
Social and Political Thought, 1850-1920</i> (New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction
Publishers, 1992), 216.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a>
René Girard, <i>Things Hidden since the Foundation of the World</i>, trans.
Stephen Bann and Michael Metteer (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987),
69. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. XI, 91.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, chap. XI, 92.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, <i>Autobiographies</i>, The Library of America: 68 (New
York: Library of America, 1994), 651, cf. 354. – Just to avoid
misunderstandings that may come with the term ‘identity’: “A is identical with
A,” says nothing about A; and yet, it entails a reflective act of identifying.
In present-day social language, ‘identity’ may mean “Who or what a person or
thing is; ...<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a set of characteristics
or a description that distinguishes a person or thing from others” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Oxford English Dictionary</i>) and,
consequently, the belonging of a person to a group of people definable by
properties or shared values. The latter sense dominates in Robert S. Levine,
“Identity in the Autobiographies,” in <i>The Cambridge Companion to Frederick
Douglass</i>, ed. Maurice S. Lee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009),
31–45; J. Kameron Carter, “Race, Religion, and the Contradictions of Identity:
A Theological Engagement with Douglass’s 1845 <i>Narrative</i>,” <i>Modern
Theology</i> 21, no. 1 (2005): 37–65; 37: “identity—who we take ourselves to be
and how we orient ourselves to others.” In Douglass’s text, ‘to preserve the
identity’ asserts the reflective sameness of the author, which is the theme of
the autobiography. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i>The Frederick Douglass Papers. Series Two</i>, 1:
Narrative:154–160; 157. On irony in Douglass see Stewart, “The Claims of
Frederick Douglass Philosophically Considered”, passim.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, “Lecture on Pictures,” in <i>Picturing Frederick Douglass:
An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s Most Photographed
American: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s Most
Photographed American</i>, ed. John Stauffer, Zoe Trodd, and Celeste-Marie
Bernier (New York: Norton, 2015), 126–41; 133. The text is also in Douglass, <i>The
Frederick Douglass Papers</i>, series 1, vol. 3, 452-473; 455. Here with the
title “Pictures and Progress.”</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn35" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Lecture on Pictures”, 128.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn36" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, “Pictures and Progress,” in <i>Picturing Frederick
Douglass: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s Most
Photographed American: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s
Most Photographed American</i>, ed. John Stauffer, Zoe Trodd, and Celeste-Marie
Bernier (New York: Norton, 2015), 161–73; 163, 166. A summary of this in Douglass,
<i>The Frederick Douglass Papers</i>, series 1, vol. 3, 620.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn37" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. III, 28.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn38" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="FootnoteText1">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 10.0pt;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a>
Margaret Kohn, “Frederick Douglass’s Master-Slave Dialectic”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Journal of Politics</i>, 67, No. 2 (May,
2005), 497-514, says correctly (500), “Although the fight with Covey did bring
about a cessation to the brutal beatings he had endured, the emancipatory
consequences were primarily psychological in nature.” However, the
anthropological meaning goes beyond the personal psychological effect. Kohn has
the further relevant literature on the case.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn39" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 60.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn40" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. X, 64.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn41" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. X, 65.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn42" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Douglass, chap. X, 65.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn43" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a>
Lewis R. Gordon, <i>Existentia Africana: Understanding Africana Existential
Thought</i> (New York: Routledge, 2000), 61. (Italics in the original.)</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn44" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[44]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 65.</div>
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<div id="ftn45" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[45]</span></span></span></span></a>
Bernard Boxill, “Two Traditions in African American Political Philosophy”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Philosophical Forum</i> 24, no. 1-3,
Fall-Spring 1992-93, 119-135; pp. 129 f. Further considerations, derived from
Douglass’s later political stances in Bernard R. Boxill, “The Fight with
Covey,” in <i>Existence in Black: An Anthology of Black Existential Philosophy</i>,
ed. Lewis R. Gordon (New York: Routledge, 1997), 273–90. Cf. Bernard R. Boxill,
“Douglass Against the Emigrationists,” in <i>Frederick Douglass: A Critical
Reader</i>, ed. Bill E. Lawson and Frank M. Kirkland (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell
Publishers, 1999), 21–49; 38-41; “Frederick Douglass as an Existentialist” in
Gordon, <i>Existentia Africana</i>, 41–61.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn46" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 11.0pt;">[46]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, “Narrative,” chap. X, 65.</div>
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PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-13246834458459133902015-08-26T01:50:00.000-07:002015-08-26T01:50:11.040-07:00On Not Seeing<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>On Not Seeing</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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When I enjoy a painting in a museum, and I accept that I am
not able to read the caption, I wonder: what else do I not see? It is true that
I like the painting, and it is true that I know there is a caption. (If I could
move close enough, I would read it but usually such notes escape me.) What is
true about that? Yes, I did learn to read and learned that pictures of any
exhibition have written information, usually about the artist, the time, and
the theme. From the times back when I had sharp eyes I have such experience.
But is that worth calling experience? Knowledge turned expectation. Can such
knowledge be true? That much about captions, but what about the painting? If it
is, as it should, unique, much of it, although I see enough to appreciate it,
eludes me. What is it that –<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from the
painting as I see it – I can expect? I do know that my vision is blurred or
tainted because people tell me things I don’t see, but how can I extrapolate
from my not seeing what is to be seen and what seeing actually might be?
Getting closer, as far as is technically possible, I perceive more and more.
This appears to verify my surmise that there is more to the painting than meets
my eye. And yet more. When was that true – before or after I moved closer? And
when I can’t go closer, is that the end of truth? Is precision an experience or
a hypothesis? Is precision then perhaps expectation turned knowing? </div>
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<i>Paul Richard Blum</i> </div>
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PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-25834616223879925552014-11-06T09:04:00.001-08:002014-11-06T09:04:15.980-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
How to think with the Head of Another: The Historical Dimension of Philosophical Problems.</h2>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<a href="http://youtu.be/lV86YL8P9Rs" target="_blank">Lecture</a> held at <a href="http://www.loyola.edu/events#/?i=3" target="_blank">Loyola University Maryland,</a> October 31, 2014. </div>
PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-83285079978993764912014-02-16T23:35:00.000-08:002014-02-16T23:44:40.248-08:00Wie denkt man mit dem Kopf des anderen? Die historische Dimension von Problemen<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />Wie denkt man mit dem Kopf des anderen?<br />Die historische Dimension von Problemen<br /><br />Paul Richard Blum<br /><br />Vortrag auf der Tagung "Znanstveni skup: Treba li filozofiji njezina povijest?"<br /><br />Institut za filozofiju, Zagreb, 5. Dezember 2013.<br /><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtoVfpf5JYk">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtoVfpf5JYk</a></div>
PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-52549202009386799852013-09-25T09:41:00.002-07:002013-09-25T09:49:12.627-07:00ANTHROPOLOGY IN SLAVE NARRATIVES <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
PAUL RICHARD BLUM<br />
“I FELT SO TALL WITHIN”—ANTHROPOLOGY IN SLAVE NARRATIVES<br />
Slavery—we all seem to know about it: that it is bad, that it was and is rampant in the human world, that it caused the Civil War in the United States in the 19th century; and also that it is at the origin of the race problem in the US. We also seem to know what anthropology is: apart from social, ethnological, medical, biological and a few other anthropologies there is philosophical anthropology, however not very popular in the English speaking world. Philosophical anthropology addresses the question: what does it mean to be human? The answer usually takes two forms: either it sets humans apart from animals or it tries to determine the essence of man. Between that there are many shades that are all variants of the Renaissance humanist definition of man as the peculiar being that, somewhere between beasts and God, determines itself. If it is the essence of humans to define their essence, then humans as humans cannot be an object of empirical observation, even if one were dealing with an unknown tribe, but only of hermeneutical research into the ways how humans express their attitude towards themselves and to fellow humans insofar as they express, assert or otherwise state their own humanity. Needless to say that actions, work, and language are the most probable resources for that.<br />
One commonality of most anthropologies, even the existentialist ones, is to define a ‘human being’ as endowed with peculiar skills and somehow worthy of being elevated; and thus they tend to swerve into Sunday school exhortations and glorifications of “man as man,” usually combined with normative virtue ethics. The religious discourse about the fallibility of man is an antidote against optimism and yet not sufficient to constitute a philosophical anthropology, unless fallibility seen in non-exhortative terms (which contradicts religion and ethics), that is, the weakness of human beings as such and while interacting with fellow humans is identified as a marker of what makes a human, then including also the ability to strive for overcoming flaws. Therefore I suggest looking at humans from the angle of their endangerment, from the moments of utter denial of humanity. What is it that is being denied; how does a human being survive at the fringes of humanity; and what is it that remains in spite of denial? Here I propose to read first person slave narratives with the question in mind: what makes a slave human? The answer will be universal: the humanity of a slave is truly human; it is the core of the meaning of being human; and the endangerment and denial of humanity to slaves yields an anthropology that by its origin and nature defies being denied.<br />
Full article in <i>Annals of Cultural Studies (Roczniki Kulturoznawcze)</i>, issue: Vol.4 (2) / 2013, pages: 2139, on <a href="http://www.ceeol.com/" target="_blank">www.ceeol.com </a></div>
PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-15195542664174338182012-12-21T15:27:00.000-08:002012-12-21T15:27:53.320-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Paul Richard Blum: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Address delivered on receiving the
Nachbahr Award of <br />Loyola University Maryland<br />September 28, 2012</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> <span style="line-height: 200%;">… </span><span style="line-height: 200%;">It is customary that the recipient
of the Nachbahr Award delivers a talk on The Life of the Mind. Usually, speakers
combine some autobiographic notes with general observations on the meaning of
being a scholar and a professor at Loyola. And I will do so, too. I will tell you a few stories that illustrate
the way I think and the way I came to think that way.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p> </o:p><span style="line-height: 200%;">I grew up in a cozy, conservative,
Catholic family. I was the youngest of three. Of our parents, Mother was much
brighter than Father. </span><span style="line-height: 200%;">[Our daughters say: it’s the same in our family.] Our father had no formal
education to speak of. He was a blacksmith and was in the process of starting a
career as a firefighter. Back then, firefighters had to be skilled in some
craft, and they all helped to build and repair each other’s homes.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">One day, I watched my father doing
some plumbing work. I remember it exactly: I was almost 10 and that day I had
passed the entrance examination for High school. [To the surprise of some
people.] As I watched him wielding tools and pipes, I asked him: How come, you
know all these trades, plumbing, roofing, carpeting – you name it? His answer
was:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">"You must steal with your
eyes!" <i>Du mußt mit den Augen stehlen!</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Stealing with your eyes, dear
students, is not an invitation to plagiarize. To “steal with one's eyes” means
to observe what you see and make it your own, to turn what you see into a skill,
to observe and share it with others.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">After all, that's what we
philosophers are doing all the time: we read what other philosophers have to
say and philosophize. So, in a way that was my first philosophy lecture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Many years later, when I was
researching the history of Jesuit education and Jesuit philosophy, I found that
this lesson was a Jesuit adage. In the 17<sup>th</sup> century, Giulio Clemente
Scotti advised his students to “<i>Learn as
though you had to teach!” </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Steal from your professors all that
they know, make it your own, and share it with others!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">During the 1990s – I had already obtained my PhD and had become a
published scholar – I left the “academic world” because of the political
situation in West Berlin, where I lived at that time. I worked for a Catholic
charity--ACN--that specialized in providing aid to the former communist
countries. With this job, I travelled with a colleague to Croatia, in the
middle of the Yugoslav war (the war of Serbia on Croatia in 1992). We inspected
refugee camps, burnt-down villages, and damaged churches. Additionally, we had
an appointment with Cardinal Franjo Kuharić,
the archbishop of Zagreb (Zagreb is the capital of Croatia). When we arrived at
the Archbishop's residence, a young priest lead us upstairs, opened a huge door,
and there we entered the assembly hall of the Conference of the Croatian
Bishops. Twenty bishops smiled at us expectantly! The Cardinal invited me to
the top of the horseshoe-shaped table, next to the Nuncio, and unexpectedly
said: "Dr. Blum, you certainly want to say a few words to my fellow
bishops." Luckily, he added: "But before we start our business, let
us pray." As the bishops began reciting the Hail Mary, I closed my eyes,
and under the canopy of their prayer I hammered out a speech. I have never
appreciated a prayer that much. When they said Amen! I was ready: "Your
Eminence, Your Excellencies …"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To the atheists in this audience I
may say: you see, prayer works! For the rest: this fits into advice given by
Ignatius of Loyola, who says: <i>Pray, as
though everything depended on God. And work, as though everything depends on
you. </i>So, as the bishops prayed, I worked. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">It is a tradition, and is appropriate,
that the recipient of the Nachbahr Award says a few words about Bernhard
Nachbahr, who is remembered for his leading role at Loyola. Unfortunately, I
never had the opportunity to meet him in person. In fact, all I know about
Bernhard Nachbahr, is what I have learned from previous awardees. So, I have
decided to speak about another person by the same name as “Nachbahr” (to my
German ears “Nachbahr” sounds like “neighbor”). This person I want to speak
about is the Czech philosopher Stanislav Sousedík (“Soused” in Czech means
“neighbor”). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Stanislav Sousedík had an enormous
influence on my thought, both academic and otherwise. In fact, my acquaintance
with him was the origin of my visiting professorship this spring in the Czech
Republic. While he is now professor emeritus in Prague, I met him in the early
1980s when he was considered the most outstanding specialist in early modern
Catholic philosophy. As a result of being Catholic, his career in communist
Czechoslovakia was interrupted at times. For some years, he was forced to be a
road worker. One day, while working at a construction site, he whistled a
Marian Hymn; maybe the Salve Regina. Another worker looked up and asked: “Hey,
do you know what kind of tune you are singing?” Sousedík said: “Yes, I do.” The
worker whispered back: "Pleased to meet you; I am Jan Opasek, the abbot of
the Benedictine Abbey of Prague!" As I said: “prayer works.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Later, Sousedík was assigned a job
in an editing project at the Academy of Sciences in communist Prague. He
published numerous papers and also wrote books on: philosophy among the Jesuits,
philosophy of the Dominicans, the Franciscans and so on. He argued that he had
to do this in order to prepare the background to this editorial work. Thus, he
became the best-known specialist of early modern Catholic thought. His works
not only taught me how to deal with early Jesuit philosophy; I also learned:
resistance is possible. Resistance does not have to be violent. At times, it
can be achieved by singing or by tongue-in-cheek. I saw that Aristotle's theory
of <i>antiperistasis</i> works in the human
sphere because oppression of the mind strengthens those intellectual and moral
forces that are, indeed, strong. And hence oppression hatches its own defeat. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">On my visits to Prague, during the
communist times, I witnessed the mechanism of communist government. So I can
assure you: even the most activist or leftist professor at Loyola is a
guarantor and defender of freedom and democracy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Sousedík was also active in the
underground university where local or foreign teachers gave philosophy classes
in private homes. This university was a complicated secretive organization that
managed to trick secret services, for most of the time. I was honored to
lecture in the living room at his home. When one asked who are the students in
the audience? The answer was, “it is better for them, and for you, not to know.”
I do know that many Dominican friars used to attend the underground university.
So, who knows?, maybe Dominik Duka was there, who is now Archbishop of Prague.
Or even his friend, the playwright Vaclav Havel, who was to become President of
Czech Republic. Who knows? But then, it is not much different from here at
Loyola. Maybe in this audience here there is the future Cardinal of Baltimore,
or the future President of the United States? In fact, something similar
happened to my wife. As a graduate student, she taught Russian language to
Italian students in Northern Italy. One of her former students was Paolo Pezzi,
who is now the archbishop of Moscow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In other words: we teachers teach
as though everything depended on us; and you students, please study as though
everything depended on you. Steal with your eyes and ears all your professors
know, and share it with others!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Thank you!</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-80360103901349878532012-08-29T17:26:00.001-07:002012-08-29T17:26:35.937-07:00Anthropology in Slave Narratives<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“I felt so tall
within”— Anthropology in Slave Narratives </span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Paul Richard Blum,
Loyola University Maryland</span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Abstract</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">"What does it mean to be
human in the face of slavery?" I will examine three autobiographical
documents from African-American slaves of the 18<sup>th</sup>/19<sup>th</sup>
century (Sojourner Truth, Victoria Albert, and Frederick Douglass) and ask: do
they allow for new insight into anthropology? Slaves are able to be human in
the face of physical and ideological denial of their humanity. Humans can
separate their bodily conditions from themselves. Deprivations of all kinds
show, paradoxically, what is essential to human beings: in this study,
religion, name, and resistance. I will also show to what extent René Girard’s
anthropology applies to the structure of slavery.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Slavery—we all seem to know about
it: that it is bad, that it was and is rampant in the human world, that it
caused the Civil War in the United States in the 19<sup>th</sup> century; and
also that it is at the origin of the race problem in the US.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We also seem to know what anthropology is: apart from
social, ethnological, medical, biological and a few other anthropologies there
is philosophical anthropology, however not very popular in the English speaking
world.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
Philosophical anthropology addresses the question: what does it mean to be
human? The answer usually takes two forms: either it sets humans apart from
animals or it tries to determine the essence of man. Between that there are
many shades that are all variants of the Renaissance humanist definition of man
as the peculiar being that, somewhere between beasts and God, determines
itself.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
If it is the essence of humans to define their essence, then humans as humans
cannot be an object of empirical observation, even if one were dealing with an
unknown tribe, but only of hermeneutical research into the ways how humans
express their attitude towards themselves and to fellow humans insofar as they
express, assert or otherwise state their own humanity. Needless to say that
actions, work, and language are the most probable resources for that.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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One commonality of most anthropologies, even the
existentialist ones, is to define a ‘human being’ as endowed with peculiar
skills and somehow worthy of being elevated; and thus they tend to swerve into
Sunday school exhortations and glorifications of "man as man",
usually combined with normative virtue ethics.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
The religious discourse about the fallibility of man is an antidote against
optimism and yet not sufficient to constitute a philosophical anthropology,
unless fallibility seen in non-exhortative terms (which contradicts religion
and ethics), that is, the weakness of human beings as such and while
interacting with fellow humans is identified as a marker of what makes a human,
then including also the ability to strive for overcoming flaws. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Therefore I suggest looking <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at humans from the angle of their
endangerment, from the moments of utter denial of humanity. What is it that is
being denied; how does a human being survive at the fringes of humanity; and
what is it that remains in spite of denial? Here I propose to read first person
slave narratives with the question in mind: what makes a slave human? The
answer will be universal: the humanity of a slave is truly human; it is the
core of the meaning of being human; and the endangerment and denial of humanity
to slaves yields an anthropology that by its origin and nature defies being
denied. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Most American slave narratives are written with an abolitionist
agenda, and most of them are taken from oral reports and recast according to
the mind and capacity of the writer. The case of Nat Turner is interesting
evidence: as an exception, it had been produced by an interviewer in order to
expose the bad character of Turner while detained. It appears that the
religious section of the text is rather authentic compared to the section on
Turner’s active rebellion. The reason is that the properly confessional parts
are such that they could not have been forged by the interviewer, who was
naturally alien to Turner’s feelings.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
As a matter of fact, those slave narratives are the closest we can get as first
hand witnesses, and the writers only could work with the facts and the elements
offered by the slaves. In that perspective those first person narratives –
whether written by the slaves or reported by others – are as reliable and
deserving interpretation as any firsthand witness. Consequently, I propose to
read slave witness reports with a certain sensibility that pays attention not
only to the horrors and appeals of the text but also to the importance given to
details and to ask: what does it say about a slave as a human, and whatever it
says it must be valid for the notion of humanity. Let me tell a few examples
and see what we can get out of them. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In my examples, I will focus on three topics: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">religion</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">names</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">resistance</i>. As
sources I will limit myself to Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass, and Octavia
Albert. The first source is the narrative of the life of a slave woman as
rendered by an empathic woman; the second, the autobiographical narrative of a
slave turned abolitionist; the third is a collection of interviews written by
an emancipated slave woman conducted with other slaves, mostly women. These
sources are sufficiently diverse to serve as a specimen of how I suggest to
understand slavery anthropologically and to investigate philosophically human
nature with the help of sources that talk of the risk of being human.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoSubtitle">
Religion</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sojourner Truth was a woman in the State of New York who was
legally emancipated in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, fought for the liberation
of her son and became an abolitionist prophetess. Her access to religion was at
the same time hermeneutic and self-reliant: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
… when she was examining the scriptures, she wished to hear
them without comment … In consequence of this, she ceased to ask adult persons
to read the Bible to her, and substituted children in their stead. … . She
wished to compare the teachings of the Bible with the witness within her; and
she came to the conclusion, that the spirit of truth spoke in those records ...
This is one among the many proofs of her energy and independence of character.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
What enabled her to have her own
mind on religion? She had experienced religion in the distorted way of a slave.
As her biographer reports:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
I asked her if her master, Dumont, ever whipped her? She
answered, 'Oh yes, … And the most severe whipping he ever give me was because I
was cruel to a cat.' At this time she looked upon her master as a God; and
believed that he knew of and could see her at all times, even as God himself.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
We have here an analogy of
proportion: a cat is to a human as a human to God; or: God is to slave owners
as slave owners to slaves and slaves to animals. In scholastic philosophy we
would have to ask: is the proportion only analogous, or does it express a unity
on all levels? The episode also reminds us of aphorisms of the pre-Socratic
Heraclitus who compared animals in relation to humans in order to explore the
relation of humans to divinity. Dumont is cruel to a slave in order to correct
the slave's cruelty to a pet. Said in this way the act appears unjust and
disproportionate. The master treats a slave like a beast who treated a beast
like a beast. The master, whom Sojourner viewed as a god, reveals himself as a
god of correction and revenge; he reveals himself as unconditionally powerful.
Instead of subduing the woman even further, his cruelty that outdoes her
cruelty kindles in her the sense of the supreme eminence that now is looking
for a true realization.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sojourner Truth always had the feeling to presage decisive
events. So, after she had escaped her master Dumont and lived legally with the
Van Wagenens, one day she predicted that Mr. Dumont was coming, and he came. Strangely,
she intended to return with him "home":</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
He answered, with a smile, 'I shall not take you back again;
you ran away from me.' Thinking his manner contradicted his words, she did not
feel repulsed, but made herself and child ready … </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Now, instead of pursuing Dumont's
reaction we learn of her mystical musings: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
But, ere she reached the vehicle, she says that God revealed
himself to her, with all the suddenness of a flash of lightning, showing her,
'in the twinkling of an eye, that he was all over'--that he pervaded the
universe--'and that there was no place where God was not.' … But she plainly
saw there was no place, not even in hell, where he was not: and where could she
flee? … When at last … her attention was once more called to outward things,
she observed her master had left, and exclaiming aloud, 'Oh, God, I did not
know you were so big,' walked into the house, and made an effort to resume her
work.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is too outrageous; it cannot have been invented by the
interviewer. The episode sheds light on the meaning of religion among slaves. The
turning point in her life comes when her master refuses to take her back, for
the very reason that she ran away. We must be aware that running away used to
be the worst thing a slave could do. Mr. Dumont acknowledges her spontaneous
liberation. At least, it appeared to Isabella that way, because she was first puzzled
by his attitude, not believing that he meant what he said. The only meaning she
could find in his being her master and not taking her back after she fled had
to be that he approved of her self-emancipation (as we may name it with little
exaggeration), thus making his imputed ambiguity unambiguous. He had played the
god-role in her life as a slave; now, in this very moment the true greatness of
God reveals itself to her. She literally experienced autonomy granted from an
autonomous and paradigmatic force. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In terms of anthropology, that is to say: to the slave, the
master is the ideal and source of freedom. On the fringe of freedom, there is a
spark of divinity and unconditional spontaneity, which in ordinary language
amounts to religion. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
And yet, there is one more aspect, to it. Mr. Dumont was her
god, and that is why she longed prophetically to return home with him. We find
more of the link between home and religion in Octavia Albert's interviews with
slaves, which she published in 1890. In Charlotte's story we read:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
Aunt Jane asked me did the people have churches here. … She
had religion, and she was as good a woman as you ever saw. She could read the
Bible, and could sing so many pretty hymns. Aunt Jane said it seemed to her she
was lost because she could not go to church and hear preaching and singing like
she used to hear in Virginia. She said people didn't care for Sunday in
Louisiana.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Unmistakably, "to have religion"
means to have a home, because both women were displaced from Virginia. Leaving
aside the tension between "American" and Catholic denominations, we
read that religion is an identifying force for the slave:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
Old mistress used to have balls on Sunday. … Mistress's
religion did not make her happy like my religion did. I was a poor slave, and
every body knowed I had religion, for it was Jesus with me every-where I went.
I could never hear her talk about that heavenly journey.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Home may be Virginia or Heaven.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span>"The older I got the
more I thought of my mother's Virginia religion."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
So she was happy to hear a minister sing: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
'O where are the Hebrew children? Safe in the promised land.'
I did not have religion when I came out here. .. [But] I never would fail to
say my prayers, and I just thought if I could get back to my old Virginia home
to hear some of my mother's old-time praises it would do my soul good. But,
poor me! I could never go back to my old Virginia home.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Of course we could apply the Marxist adage and say: religion
is the slave's opium. It is peculiarly revealing that in this text religion is
something to 'have' and 'get'<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>
Religion, we are tempted to say, has turned into a commodity one can have or
miss. On the other hand, slaves were a commodity, and hence they treated the
transcendent in kind. But more importantly we can observe in this story that
home, belonging, kinship, eschatology form a syndrome which expresses the
self-assertion of the human being. Sojourner Truth was lucky to look up to her
master as the temporary god, before she discovered divination and divinity in
her inner self. Charlotte, thrown into the loss of home and family, clings to expressions
of religion; and where <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Heimat</i> is
unattainable, it still remains as a promise. The desire is what remains when
fulfillment is out of sight. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The famous master-slave dialectics (on which I cannot dwell,
here) is obvious in the god-like Dumont who frees his slave by the word and
makes her believe in the real big god. More earthly is Frederick Douglass’s
account of the role of religion in slavery, expressing the enlightened
perspective of an abolitionist. He commented upon the scarce permission to
slaves to observe the Christian holidays:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
I believe them to be among the most effective means in the
hands of the slaveholder in keeping down the spirit of insurrection.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
He sees religious feasts as "safety-valves"<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a>
for the suppressed sprits of the slaves. On the other hand, the secret meetings
in which he discussed with fellow slaves the Scripture were at the same time
means of education and – within his narrative – the seed of self-liberation. Many
slave owners had a double standard of religious apartheid; they effectively Jim
Crowed salvation. In showing such blatant inconsistence they spurned the
craving for the transcendent. From Douglass it is obvious that critique of
religion was not within reach of the slaves, it appears to be a post-liberation
achievement, as in Douglass himself. Upon writing his autobiography he was able
to observe that "after his conversion, [his master] found religious sanction
and support for his slaveholding cruelty."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
As a slave he ran twice a Sabbath school for the fellow slaves to learn
"to read the will of God," as he whimsically explains, and he was not
ashamed of ascribing the beginning of his self-liberation to the use a a magic
root, which he obtained from a wise friend.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Looking at these findings, it appears clear to me that under
the given conditions and with all necessary precautions we may state that slave
narratives reveal something like a natural religion so that we may conclude,
again with all due qualifications, that religiosity appears to be an
anthropological given. This is especially true because it is the target of
suppression and its means; it is also the means of liberation that can be
abandoned once liberation has been achieved; it is what master and slave share
and what tells them apart. I dare say, this finding is peculiar to the slave
situation as narrated by the witnesses.</div>
<div class="MsoSubtitle">
Names </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sojourner Truth and Frederick Douglass both chose their
names for themselves. As Douglass reported:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
The slave is a human being, divested of all rights – reduced
to the level of a brute-a mere "chattel" in the eye of the law … – his
name, which the "recording angel" may have enrolled in heaven, among
the blest, is impiously inserted in a <i>master's ledger, </i>with horses,
sheep, and swine.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
In this theoretical statement,
Douglass locates the function of name between property, law, and heaven. He
takes for granted that a human being has a name, that the individuality of the
person must have a guardian, for instance an angel, and that a name goes beyond
bookkeeping. Let us assume the slave holder knows all that. This means that the
denial of a personal name denies humanity to a chattel-slave – ergo a name is
what makes up a human being.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At this point it might be worth reflecting on the ‘chattel’
nature of slavery. From the legal and economic point of view it is well known
and uncontested that slaves were treated as chattel, as movable property on a
similar level as tools or cattle (no pun possible). Without engaging in
Aristotle’s famous definition of slaves as ‘tools with a soul’, it is obvious
that slaves were a specific kind of property, closer to domesticated animals
than to dead tools. It happens, but mostly jesting, that modern people give
utilities a name (especially cars, or very important devices); but to name a
slave entails the paradox of denying and recognizing the humanity of a slave. So
it is intuitively clear that the denial of a proper name instrumentalizes the
slave, while imposing a name on him or her is a second rate acknowledgment of
the status of the slave, superior to any tool, but on a par with a pet or
livestock.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If we follow this line of thought that slaves play a role
similar to livestock, we come to surprising observations. René Girard has explained
that the root of holding livestock is not the economic advantage of having
domesticated animals ready for work and consumption. Rather, humans lived
together with animals as the potential victim whose sacrifice serves to
stabilize community and to reconcile with the transcendent. The economic
usefulness of domestication evolved only over a very long time. It is therefore
possible to speculate that African slaves, as they appeared in the life of farmers
in America, were immediately welcome as labor force, of course, but at the same
time perceived to be livestock. On livestock Girard says: “The domestication of
animals requires that men keep them in their company and treat them, not as
wild animals, but as if they were capable of living near human beings and
leading a quasi-human existence.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a>
A very similar structure occurred in American slavery: the Africans inevitably
lived close to their masters so that they could not possibly be treated just as
tools; rather, they had to be granted a quasi-human level of life. One move to
keep the difference patent was to deny the ownership of a name. It is also
intuitively obvious that this closeness at a reinforced distance made the slave
prone to victimization in the Girardian sense; but that is not at issue, here. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But if we set aside all we know about the meaning of naming
and just look at what happened to Sojourner and Frederick, we can glean the
importance of names on the anthropological level. The first thing that should
be noted is that all slave narratives awkwardly refer to slaves not plainly by
their names (“there was Jack”, or “Jim”) but with the epithet "a slave
named Jack." It seems to have been wired in the grammar of slave narrative
that names are always arbitrarily given and hence do not naturally and
necessarily name one unique individual. Jack as a person cannot be a slave; the
topic of the story is not Jack but the slave who happens to have that name.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sojourner's original name was Isabella.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a>
When she enters the service of Van Wagenen she receives his as her surname, and
her biographer explains: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
… a slave's surname is ever the same as his master; that is,
if he is allowed to have any other name than Tom, Jack, or Guffin. Slaves have
sometimes been severely punished for adding their master's name to their own.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
An example of this practice can be
found in Octavia Albert’s stories: The son of a white man was not allowed to
bear his father’s name, so the mother gave him her name.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Eventually, Isabella feels her
calling to become a preacher and lecturer, and that is the moment she chooses
for herself the name Sojourner.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a>
We have no record of her rationale for her name,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a>
so we only can take it at face value: the self-emancipated slave woman
proclaims the truth of her elementary human situation, as the Bible says: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
For we are strangers before thee, and sojourners, as were all
our fathers: our days on the earth are as a shadow, and there is none abiding. (1
Chronicles 29, 15)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 0in;">
Whereas Frederick Douglass changed his names
haphazardly, and eventually accepted one suggested incidentally by a friend,
Sojourner chose one to express her state in life. And yet, both come together,
because Sojourner's message is that of transience. Therefore, beyond the more
sophisticated mechanisms of naming and necessity, we may state that contingency
and fortuitousness come to the forefront in slave narratives. Interestingly,
Frederick Douglass does not spend much time on explaining the first occasions when
he changed his name; he simply states in a footnote that at some point, after
his escape he had changed his name from Frederick Bailey to Johnson.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a>
He then explains that he had inherited the name Bailey from his parents, but he
dropped the additional middle names that were given to him by his mother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Immediately after his departure from
Baltimore Frederick called himself Stanley, obviously a simple disguise. Then
he picked the name Johnson, which incidentally was also that of the couple that
received him in New Bedford. Since this name was all too common, he asked his
host to find him a new name, or rather, he “gave Mr. Johnson the privilege” to
do so: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
Mr. Johnson had just been reading the ‘Lady of the Lake,’ and
at once suggested that my name be ‘Douglass.’ From that time until now I have
been called ‘Frederick Douglass;’ and as I am more widely known by that name
than by either of the others, I shall continue to use it as my own.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Douglass, as a gifted writer,
creates the punch line that emphasizes the claim that his name is what he adopts
(however also with regard to “the others”) rather than being adopted. A few
lines before Douglass emphasizes that this privilege of naming did not extend
to his first name: “I must hold onto that [first name], to preserve a sense of
my identity.” </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
One interviewee in Octavia Albert’s collection includes
names in a list of the most essential things black slaves were missing: </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
Twenty-seven years ago we did not own a foot of land, not a
cottage in this wilderness, not a house, not a church, not a school-house, not
even a <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555" name="X"></a>name. We had no marriage-tie, not a legal family—nothing
but the public highways, closely guarded by black laws and vagrancy laws, upon
which to stand.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
From this list we gather that in his
later age the speaker held it to be natural that a human being has a place to
stay, social institutions, marriage and family, and a name.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoSubtitle">
Resistance</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Many of the stories in Victoria Albert’s book narrate about
slaves escaping into the woods. There was no need to explain why they hid, of
course. But for us it is important to see, to what length a fugitive is willing
to go rather than to return to the master. Again, as a matter of course, that
needs no explanation, because Victoria Albert reports these stories for the
very purpose of illustrating the cruelty of the slaveholders. From the anthropological
point of view, however, it is important that humans are able to risk their life
and to choose one misery over another. At one point we read on the subject of
running away<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: </span></div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
Aunt Charlotte said to me, ‘I tell you, my child, nobody
could get me to run away in those Louisiana swamps. Death is but death, and I
just thought if I'd run off in those <span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">swamps I'd </span>die<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.
I used to hear old people say it was just as well to </span>die<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
with fever as with ague; and that is what I thought. …’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
That seems to contradict the general
impulse to escape; at least it shows the options a slave had to weigh. Those
many slaves that did hide in the woods or made it to the Underground Railroad
chose to be masters of their own suffering rather than the victims of their
masters’ wrath.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
One interesting incident in this collection is that of
Nellie Johnson. She is described as almost white and good looking. After she
was recaptured from an attempted escape she was forced to dress as a harlequin and
a male with “<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">deer-horns on her head to punish her, with bells on them.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a>
This was certainly a mockery and revenge from the side of the slave owners for
her daringness that betrayed masculinity and resolve – features not imputed on
slaves, let alone women. This is the only case narrated in which the punishment
was not physically cruel but psychological and social. For that very reason it
allows interpreting the standard punishment by beating and other physical abuse
as inherently attacking the status and humanity of the fugitive slaves. Fleeing
is what a human being can freely choose. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
One of the most cruel stories about escaping slaves is that
of Hattie, and the plot is this: she was abused by her mistress and forced to
serve as the sex-slave to her owner’s son, of whom she had two or three
children. Hattie is described as losing one of her children in the woods, which
she buried in a piece of her clothing. Consequently, she is almost naked, and
her being naked is emphasized repeatedly in this short story that ends in
Hattie being captured and beaten to death.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a>
We can compliment Victoria Albert for the impressive density of her rendering
this case, and yet, there would have been nothing to tell if it had not
happened – and there is no reason to doubt that. This story of the almost nude
woman, mourning in the woods (“<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I had my child here in the woods; it is
dead and I buried it in a piece of my frockshirt.”) is like an emblem to tell
us that resistance does not need weapons or ruses; it originates from the naked
existence of being human. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative of
Sojourner Truth</i> tells of an interesting case of retribution by a slave. A
slave woman was appointed to tend to her ailing master who had been
particularly mean and cruel. </div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
She was very strong, and was therefore selected to support
her master, as he set up in bed, by putting her arms around while she stood
behind him. It was then that she did her best to wreak her vengeance on him.
She would clutch his feeble frame in her iron grasp, as in a vice; and, when
her mistress did not see, would give him a squeeze, a shake, and lifting him
up, set him down again, as hard as possible. ... She was afraid the disease
alone would let him recover, -- an event she dreaded more than to do wrong
herself. Isabella asked her, if she were not afraid his spirit would haunt her.
'Oh, no,' says Soan; 'he was so wicked, the devil will never let him out of
hell long enough for that.'<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
The narrator Olive Gilbert adds to
that some observations on the cluelessness of slaveholders concerning the mood
and feelings of their slaves, which are also to be found in Douglass’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>. However, Soan’s motive is
interesting of itself. She is aware of being strong and physically able; she
has a sense of revenge; she works with the natural course of the illness,
making sure it ends fatal; she believes in the ghosts and the devil but not in
the moral evil she is committing. When the physical prowess has turned to her
advantage, she exerts cruelty on her tormentor, the only difference being that
she has to act stealthily and slyly. What makes her competitive with her owner
is her capability of scheming and purposefully exerting physical power.
Morality set aside, what makes her superior to her master is her ability and
resolve to torment another with the fatal end in view, whereas the slaveholder
only had been thoughtlessly wicked. She has wickedness on her side being
convinced that the master of all wickedness would hold the ghost of her victim
at bay. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In terms of Girard’s victimization theory, Soan is probably
mimicking the violence of her master. In that sense she is emphasizing through
her action the mechanism of victimization: the master did not need torment for
his own survival but only for his entertainment and positioning as the master. His
victim, however, exposes this very relationship by activating violence with a
terminal physical goal. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In Isabella/Sojourner’s own life her rescue of her son who
had been sold South is an interesting example of the humanity of resistance. We
cannot but be amazed by her naiveté with which she fought legally for her son.
But the opening scene of this event is telling about her motivation: after her
former mistress had ridiculed her for that “<cite><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">fuss to make about
a little nigger”</span></cite><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
Isabella spoke of her trust in God and herself:</div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
<cite><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I was sure God would help me to
get him. Why, I felt so tall within – I felt as if the power of a nation was
with me!</span></cite><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1;">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a><cite><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-style: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></cite></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;">
Resistance, retribution, revenge,
and escape – they all are rooted in the fundamental awareness of oneself. The
capability to choose death, one’s own or that of the oppressor, is the capability
to be consciously oneself. This Self may well extend to humanity or, in
Sojourner Truth’s language, “a nation”. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Frederick Douglass, with a keen eye for human nature, has
written a monument to slave resistance in the description of his standoff with
his master. Let us remind ourselves that for Douglass’s fellow slaves it was
“considered as being bad enough to be a slave <span style="font-size: 3.0pt;">; </span>but
to be a poor man's slave was deemed a disgrace indeed,” because slaves were
trained to see themselves ‘transferring’ the personal value of their master
upon themselves.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a>
To become conscious of the derivative nature of the self was an important step
towards inner emancipation. Hence, to despise a slave owner could of itself be an
act of rebellion long before any attempt at violence or evasion could be
envisioned. This is the background against which we should read Douglass’s
brawl with Mr. Covey, as narrated in the tenth chapter.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a>
He alerts his reader about the importance of the event: “You have seen how a
man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a>
Of course, it was the individual slave Frederick who was ‘made a man’, and
there may be implications regarding slave masculinity, but the event is also
symbolic as it depicts an essential feature of being a man in the sense of
being human. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As Mr. Covey, the slave breaker, tried to whip Douglass,
“[h]e held on to me, and I to him.” The slave manages to get at the master’s
throat “causing the blood to run”. (71) This standoff, I think, is crucial. The
first slave who happened to pass by tried to help his master, but was kicked
off by Douglass, which had the almost comical effect that Covey’s “courage
quailed” and he asked the slave if he “meant to persist in his resistance” (71
f.). What a question! The next slave flatly refused to interfere with the
argument he was not hired “to help whip” another slave. So we have the violent
defeat of one slave and the legalistic opposition of another surrounding the stalemate.
This is the point when the slave breaker gives up “saying that if I had not
resisted, he would not have whipped me half so much.” Douglass adds immediately
that Covey had not whipped him at all. Covey becomes ridiculous through his
childish after-threat of tormenting only “half so much” leaving it open what
the other half would have looked like. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
What Covey must have realized without understanding was the
definite turn of superiority. In Douglass’s words: “he had drawn no blood from
me, but I had from him.”(72) The brawl made it physically visible that the
master was a coward and the slave ‘a man’. We should notice that Douglass did
not beat his master, the standoff was what he needed to assert his position:
when two people get even they may return to their natural humanity. “The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">physical</i> struggle dragged Covey into a
moment of equilibrium; it was a point at which the only way for any of them to
survive was by moving <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">upward</i>.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a>
That is, the impasse opened the way back to humanity. The slave breaker’s fault
was not violence as such but the inherent cowardice that consists in denying a
fellow human a chance to be human. Therefore it was sufficient for the slave to
exert as much violence as needed to show equality on the level of physical
competition. Once again, what broke Covey’s ability to subdue Douglass was the confluence
of three types of resistance: the non-fatal violent back fighting, the physical
defeat of one slave by another, and the rational verbal defiance of another
slave. These might be the major components of all resistance and rebellion. We
should not be surprised seeing Douglass summarize the meaning of this moment in
a hymnal religious tone: “I felt as I never felt before. It was a glorious
resurrection, from the tomb of slavery, to the heaven of freedom.” The
restoration of the human essence is expressed, if not caused, by the act of
resistance. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Later, Douglass concluded that resistance as such might also
persuade slaveholders to renounce on slavery by appealing to their conscience
when they learn to perceive slaves as not voluntarily submitting to their
control, thus breaking the vicious circle that slaves admit to be inferior
through being submissive.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a>
However, I think this is not a moral appeal but one that is rooted in the structure
of self-ssertion. “I did not hesitate to let it be known of me, that the white
man who expected to succeed in whipping, must also succeed in killing me.” This
concluding remark to the Covey episode (p. 73) may be read as a challenge, but
it actually says that slavery (being whipped) is the negation of humanity
(being killed). Hence resistance may be just, may be moral, may be a
psychological urge, a habit, a duty, a last resort – in the anthropological
sense it is the feature of being non-denied to exist. In Sojourner Truth’s
words, it is a ‘power of a nation’; in Douglass’s terms it is a resurrection
before death. Sojourner’s defiance and Douglass’s standoff express what Aunt
Charlotte expressed as the right to establish the terms of one’s death.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoSubtitle">
Conclusion</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If we look at these episodes from the point of view of René
Girard, we find a few puzzling components. Here is not the place to investigate
the slaveholders’ roles in victimizing African people in order to establish the
American society.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a>
For that approach we would have to look into the justification of slavery from
their perspective. The interesting question that arises from reading the slave
narratives is this: are there traces of the mimetic cycle? The mimetic cycle,
in Girard’s anthropology, consists in jealousy for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">being the other </i>as exemplified or fetishized in the other’s
possession.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a> In
the religious sphere, we see that the slaves in Louisiana do not covet the
masters’ religion; rather, they (and at least their reporter, Victoria Albert)
utterly despise it, as does Douglass. Sojourner Truth receives the notion of
divinity from looking at her master – and outdoes him in all respects. The
spark of divinity she obtains from domination sets her free. So, in this sphere
we may say the mimetic cycle does not work upwards. Which reminds, again, of
the fight with Covey: Douglass fights not in order to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">be</i> Covey, he fights in order to make Covey at least as human as he,
Douglass, just realized to be. It may be the case that Douglass was fighting
for recognition by his tormentor and that this motive prevented him from
killing him; but the case of Soan in Sojourner Truth's story shows that
self-assertion of a slave may not depend of the master's survival. Therefore it
is likely that Girard's theory that desire for recognition as the basis of
every duel<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a>
does not apply to the slaves of our narratives. The slave Frederick does not
covet Covey’s cowardice; he wants to liberate himself from that cowardice that
would keep him to be a slave.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a>
It is plain and easy to understand that naming is as close as one can come to
mimicking the other. However, the namelessness that has been imparted on slaves
deprives them of an essential feature of a human being, but at the same time it
keeps them from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">being like </i>their
tormentors. So in naming their slaves randomly the slave owners also reminded
every single individual of their not being their master. Not to mistake one’s
master for a model might have been beneficial for the slaves in their quest for
humanity. So, in a Girardian perspective, we learn that the mimetic cycle and
the resulting violence and victimization is broken on the level of utter
denial. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This brings to further general conclusions. Religion,
onomastic identity, and resistance take on very strange forms on the level of
slavery; and it is this we can learn from the slave narratives and the facts
they convey. As we saw, critique of religion requires religious freedom. We may
also state that onomastic identity is an absolute requirement of being human,
so much that it does <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">de facto</i> not
depend on a legitimate name-giver. Ultimately humans are baptized as wanderers
on this earth. And resistance and rebellion? In all three sources we see that
morality is not a condition of being human it comes only after humanity ceased
being questioned. </div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
Both <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy </i>and
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>
lack an entry "Anthropology".</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
Of course, I am thinking of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola’s notion of
self-determination, as expressed in his famous <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Oratio</i> (1486). This anthropology sets humans apart from animals and
from higher beings by the ability so refer to oneself, which, however,
culminates in approaching the level of God. <span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;">References in Paul Richard Blum, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophieren
in der Renaissance</i>, Stuttgart (Kohlhammer) 2004, chapter 8.4.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="FootnoteText1">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
If these remarks appear to evoke Martin Heidegger, I may refer to my
observations in "Rhetoric is the Home of the Transcendent: Ernesto
Grassi's Response to Heidegger's Attack on Humanism", <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Intellectual History Review</i>, 22 (2012) 261-287.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
See for example Thomas J. Higgins, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Man as
Man. The Science and Art of Ethics</i>, Milwaukee: Bruce, 1949. Higgins takes,
correctly, the definition of humans as the precondition for ethics. However, in
applying Aristotle’s Four Causes, he elevates ‘man as man’ to an ideal that
then might be accomplished through ethics. The point is that anthropology
cannot aim at ethics, at least not virtue ethics, because the baseness of human
beings must be included in the anthropological study of humans, whereas ethics
aims by definition at eliminating it. In methodical order, we may say: anthropology
shows the reality that ethics is set to improve.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="FootnoteText1">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
M. Cooper Harriss, “Where is the Voice Coming from? Rhetoric, Religion, and
Violence in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Confessions of Nat Turner</i>”,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Soundings</i> 89 (2006) 135-170.
Theoretical observations concerning anthropology in literary sources in James
P. Spradley and George E. McDonough (eds.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthropology
through Literature</i>, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1975. Cf. Mark
Reinhardt's “Who Speaks for Margaret Garner? Slavery, Silence, and the Politics
of Ventriloquism.” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Critical Inquiry</i>
29, no. 1 (2002): 81-119, and idem <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Who
Speaks for Margaret Garner</i>?, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
2010.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
The reader may trust me that I have read many more slave narratives und just
chose these three in order to keep the material for the reader traceable. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
Olive Gilbert, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative of Sojourner
Truth, a Northern Slave, Emancipated from Bodily Servitude by the State of New
York, in 1828</i>: Electronic Edition, pp. 108 f. http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/truth50/truth50.html</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. p. 33.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. pp. 65-66.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
Octavia V. Rogers Albert, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The House Of
Bondage, or: Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves</i>. New York: Hunt & Eaton,
Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe, 1890. (Reprint: New York: Oxford University
Press, 1988.) Online available at <a href="http://docsouth.unc.edu.ezp.lndlibrary.org/neh/albert/menu.html">http://docsouth.unc.edu.ezp.lndlibrary.org/neh/albert/menu.html</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"> </span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">and</span> http://digilib.nypl.org/dynaweb/digs/wwm972/@Generic__BookView</span>;
pp. 8f. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. p. 34.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. p. 4 f. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. p. 6.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>
The expression "have/had religion" and "get/got religion"
appear frequently in the book. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a>
Quoted in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gilbert, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sojourner Truth</i>, p. 64. Frederick Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</i>,
Boston: Anti-Slavery Office, 1847, chapter 9, p. 74.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>, chapter 9, p.
75. In the case of Douglass, I restrict my references to the first version of
his autobiographies, because the second and third versions contain
self-interpretations that, as valuable as they are, depart stylistically from
the tone of first-person narrative. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[17]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>, chapter 9, p.
54. The author felt compelled to justify his critical remarks in the Appendix
of the book, pp. 118-125.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[18]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. chapter 9, p. 55, chapter 10, p. 70 and 80-82. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[19]</span></span></span></span></a>
Frederick Douglass, "The Nature of Slavery", in Howard Brotz (ed.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">African-American Social and Political
Thought 1850-1920</i>, New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Publishers, 1992, p.
216.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a>
René Girard, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Things Hidden since the
Foundation of the World</i>, Stanford: University Press, 1987, p. 69. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a>
Gilbert, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sojourner Truth</i>, p. 13.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid. p. 44. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[23]</span></span></span></span></a>
Albert, p. 158 f.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[24]</span></span></span></span></a>
Gilbert, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sojourner Truth</i>, p. 100.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[25]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nell Irvin Painter, <i>Sojourner Truth: A Life, a Symbol</i>.
New York: W.W. Norton, 1996, </span>p. 75. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[26]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>, p. 110.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[27]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Narrative</i>, p. 112.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[28]</span></span></span></span></a>
Albert, p. 144.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> Albert, p. 22 f.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> Albert, p. 21.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> Albert, p. 70-73.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> Gilbert, pp. 83-84.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;"> Gilbert, p. 45.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn35" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[35]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>, p. 20.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn36" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="FootnoteText1">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[36]</span></span></span></span></a>
Margaret Kohn, “Frederick Douglass's Master-Slave Dialectic”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Journal of Politics</i>, 67, No. 2 (May,
2005), pp. 497-514, says correctly (500), “Although the fight with Covey did
bring about a cessation to the brutal beatings he had endured, the emancipatory
consequences were primarily psychological in nature.” However, the
anthropological meaning goes beyond the personal psychological effect. Kohn has
the further relevant literature on the case.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn37" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a>
Douglass, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative</i>, p. 65 f.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn38" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a>
Lewis R. Gordon, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Existentia Africana.
Understanding Africana Existential Thought</i>, New York/London: Routledge,
2000, p. 61. (Italics in the original.)</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn39" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[39]</span></span></span></span></a>
Bernard Boxhill, “Two Traditions in African American Political Philosophy”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Philosophical Forum</i> 24, no. 1-3,
Fall-Spring 1992-93, 119-135; pp. 129 f. Further considerations, derived from
Douglass’s later political stances in Bernard R. Boxhill, “The Fight with
Covey”, in Lewis R. Gordon (ed.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Existence
in Black. An Anthology of Black Existential Philosophy</i>, New York/London:
Routledge, 1997, pp. 273-290. </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn40" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="FootnoteText1">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[40]</span></span></span></span></a>
A few passing remarks on this topic in Martha Reineke, "Mimetic Violence
and Nella Larsen's <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Passing</i>: Toward a
Critical Consciousness of Racism", <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Contagion:
Journal of Violence, Mimesis, and Culture</i>, 5, Spring 1998, pp. 74-97; 77.
Some brief remarks on slavery in Plato and Aristotle<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in René Girard, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Evolution and Conversion : Dialogues on the Origins of Culture</i>. :
London: T & T Clark (Continuum), p 146 f.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn41" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[41]</span></span></span></span></a>
See for instance René Girard and Benoît Chantre, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling to the End. Conversations with Benoît Chantre</i>, East
Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2010, p. 31. Quite succinct in René
Girard, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I See Satan Fall Like Lightning</i>,
Maryknoll: Orbis, 2001, pp. 19-46.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn42" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[42]</span></span></span></span></a>
Girard, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling</i>, p. 32.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn43" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">[43]</span></span></span></span></a>
Compare with this Girard, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling</i>,
p. 31: "The rivals increasingly resemble one another; rivalry produces
twins. One of them may win out over the other and regain his illusion of
autonomy; the other will then be humiliated to the point of seeing his
adversary as sacred." In spite of the 'equality' between Covey and
Douglass and the humiliation, this is not what happened there because neither
coveted the other, not even unconsciously.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-52837454769223905442012-06-20T04:42:00.000-07:002012-06-20T04:42:20.256-07:00Philosophy in Times of Communism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Philosophy in Times of Communism – Reflections from Beyond</b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
By Paul Richard Blum
(Loyola University Maryland, currently Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci)</div>
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<br /></div>
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It is difficult to write about my
experiences with Czech philosophers of the times before the Velvet Revolution
without speaking <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad hominem</i>. Fact is
that Stanislav Sousedík was the first scholar at all whom I got to know as
living under the conditions of communism or socialism. And it is possible to
tie the fact that in Spring 2012 I am a guest professor at Palacký University
into a narrative that starts in the early 1980s when I first met him. However,
I need to refrain from telling anecdotes because I do not own them as long as
the heroes of those stories were the heroes that survived oppression. And yet,
it was those anecdotes that opened my eyes. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For instance, when I looked for some 17<sup>th</sup> century
books at the Strahov library, coming from West Berlin, the librarian approached
me and rattled down a number of questions (how is the Berlin library, how many books,
what kind of books, …) and excused himself saying: "We know nothing,
nothing …" At that point I had learned something. Or how I gradually
learned – by the measure in which the authorities chose to withhold printing
paper – that editing the works of Comenius on the mercy of the Party can be
subversive and conspiratorial. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
history of oppression, and specifically of communism, is full of stories of the
same structure – and that is the point! </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
What I gathered early on is that Aristotle's theory of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiperistasis</i> works in the human world:
oppression of the mind strengthens those intellectual and moral forces that
are, indeed, strong. And hence oppression hatches its own defeat. The communist
or socialist regimes of the 20<sup>th</sup> century were defeated by those
strong minds. Hence my conclusion was: resistance is possible. Resistance does
not have to take on violent forms, because it is oppression itself that
occasions the measure and means of resistance. Hence a second conclusion: I would
wish never to be forced to resist. As I said, the anecdotes that would
illustrate these conclusions are owned by their agents: Sousedík and countless
others whom I met in almost all countries under (former) Soviet domination
since the 1980s. They will, telling those stories in their own words, establish
a living tradition from the inside of the life of the mind under duress.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
One more meaning I want to point out, namely, a sense of circumspection
born out of insecurity that may be essential for all human endeavors and
certainly should give profile to the way a philosopher, who is lucky not to be
endangered, proceeds while thinking. Let me mask this lesson with another
story. I was honored (well, back then, I was just plunged into that) to teach
in the "Pantoffeluniversität", these unofficial gatherings around
some local or foreign philosophy teacher in some private apartment. When we
Westerners asked who the audience was, we were told it is safer for them and
for us, not to know. Later I came to speculate, since many Dominican friars
were among the students, whether I might have had in front of me the present
Cardinal of Prague or his friend the late President of the Czech Republic. My
conclusion is: always think as a philosopher and a teacher as though you had a
future Cardinal or President among your students!</div>
</div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-26730641977953046402012-05-19T08:17:00.001-07:002012-05-19T08:17:44.355-07:00Slavery and the Body<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Slavery and the Body</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: center;">
<i>Paul Richard Blum, Loyola
University Maryland</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
<br />
African American slavery has two presuppositions: mind/body
dualism and idealism of the concept of humanity.</div>
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<br />
<i>Mind and body</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
In a mode of thinking of man as a unity of mind and body,
enslavement of the body entails enslavement of the mind. When Aristotle says
that a slave is a tool with a soul and that the slave–by definition–lacks the
intellect to give directions but still is intelligent enough to follow
instructions, then he implies that the intellect of the slave is co-enslaved
with the servant. He has no problems with that, because he has no political or
moral concerns about slavery. His is a formal description and as such it is
correct. For Aristotle the individual soul does not transcend the body (in
Christian language: is not immortal), it is an enhancement of the body that
allows man to achieve intellectual feats (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">theoria</i>)
that surpass animals but do not essentially place man above beasts, which are
defined as having the lower functions of the soul. That being said, what
happens if we assume that humans are fundamentally superior to animals and yet
enslave them? </div>
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The superiority of humans over beasts stems from the
endowment with an immortal and intellectual soul. Therefore, one strategy that
allows enslaving people is to find them guilty of something—a strategy that
takes the unity of mind and body into account. Another justification will be to
sever mind from body, conceptually, and to maintain that the physical
properties of the servant are Aristotelian tools for the use by the owner,
while the mind, including free will!, remains intact. Unfortunately, that
cannot work for a long time within the same individuals involved (the owner and
the slave), because the owner exacts obedience, total obedience. We will have
to reflect on the role of obedience in servitude and slavery, but it appears
that the degree of commitment of the slave, required for slavery, goes so far
that the slave does not obey at all, but rather instrumentally works at the
owner's will. The slave will give up even the obedience to his own thinking and
inclinations, as they inevitably would conflict with the expectations of the
owner. Consequently, the owner has to look at the slave as though he had no
will at all and also no intelligence that could inform the will. Blind
obedience is enforced to the level of de-mentalization. </div>
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On the other hand, slaves tend to show operations of their
souls: emotions, sensations, even reason in the form of memory regarding
commands and good ideas of how to improve (or avoid) work. They turn out to be
tools that are not allowed to but occasionally do think. Their emotions even
come handy: submission, faithfulness, and sexual life. The only way out of this
paradox is to assume that slaves do have souls, that it is the body that is
enslaved, that together with the body emotions and lower level rational
functions are at the service of the owner, and that the mind of the slaves is
not affected by enslavement so that it is not the immortal souls but only the organic
functions of the body are property of the slave holder. This would explain how
Christians had no qualms holding human beings as slaves. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
Another explanation would be physicalism, namely the
implicit assumption that the mind is only a surface phenomenon of the organic
functions of a human body and hence as much property of the owner as all the
bodily organs and skills. This theory has one problem, namely that it would
also apply to the slaveholder and his kin. Can the slaveholder consistently
believe to be endowed with an eternal reward or punishment expecting soul while
at the same time brutalizing (implicitly and conceptually) the slaves?
Conceptual consistency is not the forte of farmers, entrepreneurs, politicians,
and even religious ministers. And yet, the contradiction should have surfaced,
namely that the slave owners are defined as humans with a rational and eternal
soul, while the slaves are brutes. Of course, this argument has been made by
various abolitionists but it did not dawn upon the active slave holders. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
The famous vignette "Am I not a man and a
brother?" refers to this contradiction—notably to little effect. Therefore
it might be correct to assume in the minds of the slaveholders a notion of
human being that allows for including oneself, wife, children, and neighbors
and excluding servants.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A mental experiment</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
Supposed we frame a notion of man that includes myself, my
wife, my parents, and my mistress, but excludes the houseboy who watches so
that I don't get caught cheating on my beloved wife—what would that humanity
look like? It would include everything I am proud of: entrepreneurship,
scholarship, fidelity, religion, my stature and prowess, my commanding
presence, authority and benevolence, and many other features. The common
denominator of all these features (I could have added musicality and sensibility)
is that they are ideal. Their ideality consists in their being concepts,
conceits, ideas, theories of myself and others, regardless tangible reality.
Although my son is lazy and my daughter needs to be married off before she
exposes her lascivious character, although my wife is more cold than her refinement
in dressing reveals, although my neighbor is a drunkard and beats his wife, and
although my mistress is a mistress and I am an adulterer—we all appear in
Church heads up and convinced that we are the crown of God's creation. We are
intelligent and graceful, benevolent and amiable; we keep in shape and believe
our physical appearance is pleasant to the senses and to moral feelings. In
short, we live our lives according to a moral, intellectual, and esthetic
script that defines us qua us. The pages of the script come from our higher
education and its time tested sources: the catechism, the Bible, the
constitution, the law of the land, the tradition of the forefathers. Every
single thing that does not enter this scheme of being human is not human and
therefore available for slavery.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Idealization</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
In using first-person syntax I want to draw attention to the
paradoxical structure of this thinking. There is no need to expose hypocrisy or
double standards here. My claim is that human beings naturally think this way.
In history and sociology we call that ideal-type.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">[1]</span></span></span></a>
Humans orient their self-awareness and their conduct of life according to ideal
types that they deem to be realized in themselves. </div>
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When one accuses a person of a transgression, one often
receives the denial in the form of "That's not me." The excuse can be
translated into "The accusation lies outside the ideal type (of an
employee, a student, an athlete, of a person) with which I identify
myself." Max Weber used ideal-types as rational constructions to capture
varied and irrational reality in history and society. The ideal-type's main
feature is independence of truth and morality with regard to objective reality,
which helps sorting social phenomena by way of excluding particulars that do
not fit the schematics; in that sense it is also applicable to
self-identification. Historians and sociologists have to eclipse contingencies
for heuristic reasons; ordinary people relate themselves to ideal-types that
help them find meaning in their individual lives without being hampered by trifles.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
Slaves are trifles to the righteous owner. We may also call
that ideology,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">[2]</span></span></span></a>
if we define ideology as a system of ideals that not only helps understanding
reality but that is taken to be reality. The bodily reality of a slave,
including his or her response to pain, humiliation, abuse, or reward is not
part of the reality of the slave owner, because that is formed and constituted
by ideals that, by definition, eclipse the slave reality. Things become very
nasty, once the bodily properties need to be included in the ideal and ideology
that shapes the owner. Then the bodily properties of the slave, regardless of
their tool function in the Aristotelian sense, have to be sorted out of the
conceit of the owner. </div>
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<hr size="1" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"> Weber, Max 1968: Gesammelte Aufsätze zur
Wissenschaftslehre, Tübingen, S. 190ff. </span>Idem, Essays in Sociology, ed.
by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Abingdon: Routledge, 1991, p. 294:
"All <a href="http://www.blogger.com/%3ciframe%20src=%27http:/www.archive.org/stream/frommaxweberessa00webe?ui=embed#mode/1up%27%20width=%27480px%27%20height=%27430px%27%20frameborder=%270%27%20%3E%3C/iframe%3E">ruling</a>
powers, profane and religious, political and apolitical, may be considered as
variations of, or approximations to, certain pure types. These types are constructed
by searching for the basis of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">legitimacy</i>,
which the ruling power claims." Idem, The Methodology of the Social
Siences, ed. by Edward A. Shils and Henry A. Finch, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press,
1949, p. 42 and 92 f.; p. 93 on the definition of 'ideal types': "When a
genetic definition of the content of the concept is sought, there remains only
the ideal-type … It is a conceptual construct … which is neither historical
reality nor even the 'true' reality." </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[2]</span></span></span></a>
Sypnowich, Christine, "Law and Ideology", The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<http: archives="" entries="" fall2010="" law-ideology="" plato.stanford.edu="">: "Daniel
Bell dubbed ideology ‘an action-oriented system of beliefs,’ and the fact that
ideology is action-oriented indicates its role is not to render reality
transparent, but to motivate people to do or not do certain things."</http:></div>
</div>
</div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-45937664020515997312012-02-19T07:33:00.000-08:002012-02-19T07:33:08.516-08:00Soemmerring, Geach, and the "I"<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:DocumentProperties> <o:Author> prb</o:Author> <o:Version>14.00</o:Version> </o:DocumentProperties> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:DoNotShowPropertyChanges/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]--> </div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Supremacy Romanticism</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-indent: 0in;">When Soemmerring attempted to prove that Negroes are physiologically inferior to Europeans he blatantly served a romanticism of supremacy. This becomes tangible when, on the first pages he admits that white people do entertain slavery; in the 1784 edition, he expressly named Russians and Poles, but a year later he made the excuse more vague, referring to Europeans. At the same time he added the monetary value of an African slave and some literary reference. These amendments give away that Soemmerring was not feeling secure in his task. It also sheds light on the subsequent treatise: a scientific justification of resentment. His physiological anthropology was expression of his supremacy romanticism.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Any romanticism is driven by resentment of the current state of affairs and reactionary in the sense of reacting to a threat perceived in the present situation with the impulse to regain territory, restore a status quo ante, or at least to conserve the status quo. What might have frightened Soemmerring? Most likely the results or the theoretical framework of his research. His studies on brain anatomy had led to a stage of interpretation that severed the mind of all human and moral properties. Therefore he had to find a human group that in being inferior elevated the Soemmerring's group. It is revelatory how he employed the first person grammar in vindicating humanity of Negroes: "Um allen gehäßigen Schlüssen und Mißbrauche vorzubeugen, wiederhole ich nochmals, die Negern sind wahre Menschen, so gut wie wir", and he adds with a wink to his gentlemen readers, "als eine der schönsten Griechinnen."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span></span></span><img alt="" height="128" 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width="200" /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Why this reference to the first person; why could he not say something like "as truly human as any European"? My interpretation is: whenever philosophers and scientists refer to themselves as the touchstone of their theory, they are vindicating a lost supremacy, lost through their own investigation and the resulting theory. We are not talking about Descartes' <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ego cogito</i>, because he thematized the need to reduce the theory of the world and of consciousness to the "I" of the philosopher. (He may have been wrong in doing so, but that is not the matter here.) We are not talking of philosophical subjectivism, as in Kant's transcendentalism, which inevitably has to establish an <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ego</i> as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i> of thought. We are dealing with scientific investigation into matters at hand, established facts, and objects of research, where every now and then slips in an I. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Peter Geach, for instance, while explaining Plato's theory of immortality said: "It appears a clearly intelligible supposition that I should go on after death …"<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> Wait, to whom is that intelligible? To his credit, Geach immediately after that plays with the notion of him, Peter Geach, surviving or not with or without body. So it is justified that he assumes the first person perspective in order to show the paradoxes of identity in immortality. And yet, is it inevitable to discuss the immortality of the soul in first person? I should say, no, it is even wrong. As Geach argues, the ontological status of the soul after death is so different from that of the soul as the identity making feature of a living person that it is impossible to apply experience to the immortal soul. Experience is first person experience. Hence it is wrongheaded to use the first person perspective when discussing immortality. As Geach says, the claim "But if I went on being conscious, why should I worry which body I have," should be rephrased as "If there is going to be a consciousness that includes ostensible memories of my life .." This language is "fairer" (p. 20), because it addresses the fundamental distinction between the embodied self and the immortal consciousness. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So what is the power of temptation of the "I"? It is holding on to what is slipping away. The first person claim is the attempt at recuperating what is lost in the debate. </div><div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br clear="all" /> <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /> <div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;"> <div class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> Michael Hagner, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Homo cerebralis. Der Wandel vom Seelenorgan zumGehirn</i>, Frankfurt: Surhkamp, 2008, p. 67. S. Th. Soemmerring, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ueber die körperliche Verschiedenheit des Negers</i>, Frankfurt/Mainz: Varrentrapp, 1785, p. XX.</div></div><div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;"> <div class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=490591407316447555#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> Peter Geach, "Immortality," in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Immortality</i> ed. Terence Penelum, Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1973, 11-21; 13.</div></div></div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-33984377073070896332012-02-11T00:24:00.001-08:002012-02-19T07:35:52.215-08:00Von Dickköpfen, Vagabunden und Engeln<b><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: times new roman,serif;">E. Buschmann </span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><i style="font-family: georgia,serif;"><span style="color: #274e13;">Von Dickköpfen, Vagabunden und Engeln</span> --- Die drei Legenden des Mönchs Thomas Alter a Bivio (R.I.P.)</i></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Drei Weisen, Mensch zu sein: kapriziös, unterwegs, oder darin gefangen nicht zu fallen. </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">(<a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_582636740">Hier erh</a></span><a href="https://sites.google.com/site/ebuschmannsbuecher/" target="_blank">ältlich.</a>)<br />
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</div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-79196660958693768362011-06-06T06:00:00.000-07:002011-06-06T06:00:10.890-07:00"Am I not a Man, and a Brother?"Are slaves humans? Should be a silly question. And yet, to be human does not shield against injustice, it not even protects life. Soldiers, criminals, embryos, children, spouses, cab drivers ... Are they humans? And yet they all get murdered. Circumstances? Bad luck? Was Konrad Lorenz right in observing that in humans the protective reflex does not function, i.e., the inhibition to kill as soon as the succumbing dog exposes its throat? In humans, humility arouses libido? What is going on when, after a man has been overwhelmed and shackled, subservience is perceived to be natural and right? Perhaps, the dominator -- in view of the inhibited freedom of the slave -- looses his freedom to free the slave. Humility makes tyrants.PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-68889954299679402672010-12-05T05:56:00.000-08:002010-12-05T05:56:40.182-08:00A Conversation on Liberal EducationHere is an interview with Daniel Clements, Political Science and Philosophy student at Loyola University Maryland. <a href="http://blip.tv/file/4402092">http://blip.tv/file/4402092</a><br />
Topics are the Seven Liberal Arts; education vs. vocational training; Humanism and humanistic studies; the Jesuits' <i>Ratio Studiorum</i> as heir to the humanist ideals, including <i>cura personalis</i> and <i>cultivation of individual talents</i>; Allan Bloom's <i>The Closing of the American Mind</i>; the connection between poor general education and openness to dictatorship and tyranny.PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-13538133657645729332010-08-26T14:10:00.002-07:002012-03-15T23:58:44.017-07:00Michael Polanyi: Can the Mind Be Represented by a Machine?<link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cprblum%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cprblum%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cprblum%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><style>
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<div style="text-align: center;"><b>Michael Polanyi: Can the Mind Be Represented by a Machine?</b></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">By Paul Richard Blum</div><div class="MsoNormal"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in left 28.0pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">Full version now available as </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: inherit; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Michael Polanyi: <a href="http://www.polanyi.bme.hu/folyoirat/2010-01/2010-1-2-03-Blum.pdf" target="_blank">Can the Mind beRepresented by a Machine?</a> Documents of the Discussion in 1949, in <i>Polanyiana </i>(Budapest) 19 (2010 [actually 2012]) 35-60. </b></span></div></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">On the 27th of October, 1949, the Department of Philosophy at the University of Manchester organized a symposium "Mind and Machine", as Michael Polanyi noted in his <i>Personal Knowledge</i> (1974, p. 261). This event is known, especially among scholars of Alan Turing, but it is scarcely documented. Wolfe Mays (2000) reported about the debate, which he personally had attended, and paraphrased a mimeographed document that is preserved at the Manchester University archive. He forwarded a copy to Andrew Hodges and B. Jack Copeland, who in then published it on their respective websites. The basis of this interpretation here is the copy preserved in the Regenstein Library of the University of Chicago, Special Collections, Polanyi Collection (abbreviated RPC, box 22, folder 19). The same collection holds the mimeographed statement that Polanyi prepared for this symposium: "Can the mind be represented by a machine?" This text has not been studied by Polanyi scholars.</div><div class="MsoNormal">First a summary of the debate as it appears from the minutes; an interpretation of Polanyi's statement will follow.</div><div class="MsoNormal">From the minutes of the discussion, it is obvious that the question concerning the human mind and computing machines was addressed -- and should be addressed -- from a variety of scientific angles. Dorothy Emmet, a scholar of Alfred North Whitehead, seems to have kept a low profile and yet she raised the typical philosophical question, whether consciousness is not what distinguishes human thought from machine operations. It is interesting that Alan Turing, in devising his later so called Turing Test, related this objection not to a philosopher but rather to the neurologist Jefferson (Turing 1950, p. 446). We have no evidence from the notes whether Jefferson had agreed with Emmet, but Turing's answer reveals that his approach to 'machine thought' focused on "sets of rules" ; he granted "conscious working" a status separate from routine operations that can be performed/emulated by a machine. Thus, looking for the philosopher's input first, we see immediately everyone concerned with the specter of materialism or of the "fourth continuity", i.e., the upcoming new shock (after Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud had evinced the continuity between humanity and the cosmos, animals, and mental illness) which consisted in creating a seamless transition between mind and machine (Mazlish 1967).</div><div class="MsoNormal">It seems Emmet was the only professional philosopher present, if we except Polanyi who in 1948 had moved from chemistry to "social studies". Mathematicians were present, namely Maxwell Herman Alexander "Max" Newman, Alan Turing, Maurice Bartlett, and Bernhard Neumann; furthermore the neurologists J. Z. Young and Jefferson, and then a person named Hewell (so far unidentified; note the question mark at the first appearance of his name) who also seems to be an expert in physiology of the brain.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Evidently, the discussion started with Newman responding to Polanyi's statement and his interpretation of Gödel's theorem. It appears that the mathematician conceded the assumption that the operations of machines "cannot do anything radically new" and that the assessment of the difference between mind and machine is a matter of experimental research, rather than a priori speculation. At this point, Turing intervenes by emphasizing that his idea of a "universal machine" entails some kind of self-referential operation, as one could translate the capability of "turning itself into any other machine". Consequently, the three questions summarized by Emmet after a break: machine-brain analogy, physiology, limitations of the machine, are all answered by the mathematician Turing with an enigmatic reference to "trial and error" in combination with memory. Turing seems to have no doubt that operating on 'past experience' and memory are not features that keep the machine and the brain apart. The next time a mathematician joins in, namely Newman, the problem of the design of the calculator comes to the forefront. He implicitly suggests using the design of a calculating machine, as the paradigm for investigating the mind. In doing so, he underlines the elementary problem raised by physiologist, Young, of internal versus external approach to operations. For "in the case of the mechanical brain we start with something which has been made by us", as Young said, so that the implied solution could be a methodical approach to what takes place when a calculating machine is being programmed. This would be a 'meta-programming' approach, in which the program and the design are not the same thing.</div><div class="MsoNormal">When the discussion circles around the problem of memory storage, Newman makes a further methodical suggestion that, broadly speaking, reflects the hypothetical-deductive method of science: "start like the atomists with a 'billiard ball' hypothesis”; that is to say, to hypothesize that the mind is a machine ("which is obviously wrong") in the hopes that experimental and theoretical research will falsify that, in due course. Not only the mathematician Neumann, with reference to consistency proofs, but also the neurologists agree. In spite of Polanyi's repeated objection that some achievements of the mind cannot be hypothesized with "crude models", the conversation goes on along the lines of models, analogies, and hypotheses and heads towards the notion of "incompatibles". If a system is observed from the outside, hypothetical paradigms help pointing out crucial changes that may or may not reveal alternatives or "choices" in the observed process. At this point, Turing stresses that "random operation can be made to become regular after a certain prevailing tendency has shown itself". The regularity is to be assumed first in the observation, that is, in the accommodation of the paradigm to the observed process, and then assumed to be indicative of the regularity of the process itself. So far it is a case of pure empirical research. Turing illustrates that with the operation in a machine, which on the input of incompatible data registers the contradiction and returns to the origin of the contradiction. Just recently, John von Neumann had suggested that the rounding-error of a calculator, which is caused by the limited number of digits, can be compensated by having three machines doing the same calculation and stopping in case of conflicting results. This is the moment when Turing explicitly sides with Polanyi in citing his insistence on the basic difference between "mechanically following rules" and consciously knowing rules. And yet there remained a dissent that needs to be clarified. Before that can be done, we need to take a look at the physiological/neurological view in the debate.</div><div class="MsoNormal">To summarize the mathematicians' contribution to the discussion: there is no doubt that machines are no minds, although Turing is seeking for the option to produce self referring machines, which opens the methodological discussion about design, method, and the meaning of rules.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Early in the debate Jefferson feels compelled to state that bodily functions may be interpreted in mechanical terms, "but not 'Mind'", to which Turing replies that even in engineering and operating a machine, there remains an element of playing and ignorance. If that was actually the response of Turing to Jefferson, as it appears in the minutes, then the mathematician is consciously rejecting a mechanistic approach to physiology. His later definition of purpose as "use of previous combinations plus trial and error" suggests, in this perspective, that biologists should not abolish hypothetical purposes in living organisms, but rather redefine purposefulness in terms of programming. In terms of programming, to "put a purpose into a machine" is not different from the operations of living organism. Bartlett seems to have no problem assuming that the brain can be functioning with statistical errors. So Young joins in: first, he interprets Turing's remarks as an invitation to neurologists to collaborate with mathematicians. Cybernetics would be the point in case. (Turing was involved in the birth of this new discipline: Wiener 1948/1961, p. 23.) Then Young mentions as a problem that the behavior of brain cells might be different from that of other cells in organisms. But more importantly, he points out that the "collaboration" could reveal a fundamental difference between physiology that investigates a self-sustaining object, whereas engineering a brain provides an object, the rules of which have been established and implanted by the researcher. He re-phrases the same difference by asking: "The physiologist can stimulate points and see what happens -- do the 'mechanicians' do the same?" The distinction between a mechanical and a physiological view on the mind could be that the brain as an organism is still good for surprises (it has to be studied empirically); whereas the mind as a machine would presuppose that its laws are known a priori (from its blueprint). Nothing unexpected should happen when poking a mind-machine. Histology and EEG are mentioned as recent techniques of physiological investigation and the specialists keep exchanging about its uncertainties until Young moves over to philosophical aspects. </div><div class="MsoNormal">In departing from empirical approaches, the physiologist seeks help from philosophy: first Young ponders the option that memory is not limited to a specific location in the brain, like memory cells, and then he endorses the term Gestalt of philosophical psychology and calls for logic to set up promising hypotheses. The promise lies in the pattern shift. Wholeness, paradigms, and logically supported hypotheses—that's what is needed in order to guide empirical research into the brain as the organ of thought. Polanyi very much appreciated Gestalt psychology giving it an anthropological and cognitive meaning: "Gestalt psychology has assumed that perception of a physiognomy takes place through the spontaneous equilibration of its particulars impressed on the retina or on the brain. However, I am looking at Gestalt, on the contrary, as the outcome of an active shaping of experience performed in the pursuit of knowledge." From this philosophical interest he can voice doubt whether "seeing stereoscopically" can play a role in the envisioned research program on the mind and, again, how would is possible to "derive from the model the conception of 'seeing in depth'"? The philosopher seems to be capitalizing on the inherent methodical limitations of mechanical physiology, which are both expressed in Jefferson's naïve dualism and in the antinomies of organisms that, as empirical objects, elude a singular method.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Eventually the physiologists joined the mathematicians in departing from the narrow confines of their disciplines. Cybernetics, in this perspective, opens an understanding of machine operation that matches the anatomical findings and lack thereof. Jefferson (1960, p. 43) lamented later that feelings miss "special abodes in the brain" and have been reduced to "fictitious … entities". Since he was quite informed about the history of sciences, and in particular the debate about the location of the soul (Jefferson 1949, cf. 1960, pp. 94-209), it is also legitimate to mention that the study of the physiology of the brain, in connection with attempts at anatomy and localizing the human mind and its functions, had had a steady career in 18th through 19th century medicine and philosophy (Hagner 2008). Mechanical optimism battled with philosophical skepticism. There was always at stake the question: is there any relation between functions of the human mind (sense perception, memory, morality, etc.) and the empirical data? Young's probing octopus brains and Jefferson's neurosurgery were just continuations of that century old debate. The aim remained the same, finding the interface between psychic and physical states. The news at this discussion was that decentralized memory storage and generally non-localized and non-mechanical forms of operation became thinkable. In that sense it marked the threshold to the computer age and cyber world. </div><div class="MsoNormal">As soon as unpredictability, randomness (Turing), non-quantifiability, and holistic approaches are admitted, Turing is able to redirect the perspective away from mind-as-a-machine towards the functioning of machines. Therefore, when he answers Jefferson's objection who doubted that human beings would be able to be perturbed by conflicting results of a thought process, Turing quips -- to the amusement of the people present -- that this is what mathematicians do. So we have the paradoxical situation that the physiologist gives less credit to the 'intelligence' of the mind than Turing gives to a well working machine. When someone in the audience asks: "are mathematicians human beings?" it becomes obvious that the Turing project is to analyze human thought by way of programming a computer. Mathematics is what humans do and what machines can do.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Therefore it now also becomes clear what is at stake between Turing and Polanyi. They agree that a mathematical interpretation of thought is not all there is. Yet, Turing tries to find in thinking as much mathematical procedure as possible, while Polanyi aims at capturing with philosophical precision that what remains. Jefferson's foggy "not the 'Mind'" and Young's apparently crestfallen swerving into philosophical methodology are to be remedied by Polanyi's insistence on formalization and specification. This is what he had to tell his colleagues in his own statement.</div><div class="MsoNormal">In his statement on the question whether the mind can be represented by a machine Polanyi pronounced five theses. First he interpreted the development of mathematics from Hilbert to Gödel as establishing a realm that cannot be formalized and hence is prior to computation that a machine can do. Second, he identifies this non-computing operation with reflection as the specific power of the mind. Third, the outcome of Gödel's and Tarski's discoveries do not disturb the understanding of human mind, they rather afford a philosophical tool to distinguish the primordial capability of reflection on rules which itself is not bound to those rules. His fourth point is the capability of belief that precedes empirical knowledge and is its foundation. Lastly Polanyi reasserts the denial of mechanical determinism. In Roger Penrose's classification (1994, pp. 12-16) Polanyi would probably be a "C- believer", according to whom "the problem of conscious awareness is indeed a scientific one, even if the appropriate science may not yet be at hand" (p. 16), that is, Polanyi seems to believe that some mental activities can be emulated by computers, but not all of them.</div><div class="MsoNormal"> As is well known, Gödel had claimed that the system S contains propositions that cannot be proven and it contains undecidable problems (paraphrased from Gödel 1930, pp. 141-143). He had also added that his theorems "can be extended also to other formal systems" (p. 143); indeed, "[a]ny epistemological antinomy could be used for a similar proof of the existence of undecidable propositions" (Gödel 1931, p. 149 n 14). Now it is revealing how Polanyi phrased Gödel's "discoveries": To him this was originally about "arithmetic and advanced geometry". An unknown hand corrected his wording by saying that Gödel dealt with "number theory". This is factually correct, but it shows Polanyi's drive to extend the meaning of the theorem beyond number theory. A few lines down, when Polanyi concluded that there must be a "procedure for the discovery … which, by its very nature, is incapable of formalization", the same hand interjected that formalization is possible in meta-language. For Gödel 'formalization' was a term of art within mathematics, that is, to be "reduced to a few axioms and rules of inference", and his aim of 1930/1931 had been to show that it is not the case "that these axioms and rules of inference are sufficient to decide any mathematical question that can at all be formally expressed in these systems" (Gödel 1931, p. 145). This exchange makes it clear that Polanyi saw in Gödel's discoveries a point of departure from the need of formalization. As a scientist he was, of course, well acquainted with axiomatic systems. But as a philosopher, he was intrigued by the option of an infinite regress in formalization, a regress that is spurred by reflection, as he says, to the effect that reflection must necessarily stand outside of the mathematical/scientific procedure. When his reader appealed to meta-language that could reenter the process of formalization, i.e. axiomatization, he was kicking at an open door, for Polanyi had already integrated meta-language on his escape route out of the word of formalization. Tarski and Gödel are both witnesses to an "indefinitely extending programme of innovation, which can be achieved only by informal methods and not by a machine" (end of section 2).</div><div class="MsoNormal">When Polanyi returns to the subject in his <i>Personal Knowledge</i> he states (1974, p. 258) that "a formal system of symbols and operations can be said to function as a deductive system only by virtue of unformalized supplements, to which the operator of the system accedes: symbols must be identifiable and their meaning known, axioms must be understood to assert something, proofs must be acknowledged to demonstrate something, and this identifying, knowing, understanding, acknowledging, are unformalized operations on which the working of the formal system depends." Thus he groups a wide range of mental acts together as those that precede formalization (symbols, axioms, rules), and this is what in the 1949 debate he called "semantic function". "We call them the semantic functions of the formal system. These are performed by a person with the aid of the format system, when the person relies on its use." (Ibid.) He immediately adds that there is a "legitimate purpose of formalization", namely, an increasing reduction of "informal operations; but it is nonsensical to aim at the total elimination of our personal participation" (p. 259). So he remains faithful to his understanding that mechanization, and specifically a mathematical interpretation of thought, is appropriate as long as one acknowledges the existence of what he later would call the personal coefficient. Surprisingly he dismisses the Turing Test (Turing 1950) alleging that Turing had turned the question about thinking machines into "the experimental question, whether a computing machine could be constructed to deceive us to its own nature as successfully as a human being could deceive us in the same respect" (p. 263 n 1). If Polanyi did not reject Turing's project on the whole -- and he didn't -- he must have been alarmed by the playful implications of the mathematician's tongue-in-cheek approach to cognition. It is obvious that Turing's mental experiment successfully fooled a large audience into believing that thinking was a trickster game. </div><div class="MsoNormal">Much of Polanyi's energy was invested in unmasking imposters and simplifiers. In the opening chapter of <i>Personal Knowledge</i>, he takes to task the myth of objectivity that makes believe there were no personal investment in discovering objective facts of nature (cf. Blum 2010b). In a paper of 1950 on "Scientific Beliefs" (that will become part of <i>Personal Knowledge</i>¸ chapter 12), he attacked standard positivism: "A genuine scientific theory must operate like a calculating machine, which, once the keys representing the dividend and the divisor have been depressed, determines the result automatically" (p. 27). It is this broader cultural context that interested Polanyi when he joined the debate about mind and machine. The misunderstanding of the working of a machine is an expression of the mistaken anthropology. Positivists and mechanicists believe to "construct a machine which will produce universally valid results. But universal validity is a conception which does not apply outside the commitment situation." (p. 35). Polanyi dedicated an offprint of that paper "to A. M. Turing with best thanks". In a later class on "Unspecifiable Elements of Knowledge" (his famous book was out since 1958) he boldly uses machines as a paradigm. When the design of a machine had been invoked to solve the problem of the mind-machine-riddle, then it was even more fitting to choose as the "leading example a class of comprehensive entities of which we can specify both the particulars and their coherence." The surprising result is that the philosophy of machines is not much developed, and therefore it has been overlooked that machines "embody rules that are not laws of nature"; even more, the failures of machines ("bursting of boilers") are part of their essence, namely, as "imperfect embodiment of its ideal". In this lecture Polanyi fought submitting to the machine as the ideal or paradigm and recuperated it for the anthropological inquiry of knowledge. </div><div class="MsoNormal">Therefore, it is important to notice Polanyi informing his readership of <i>Personal Knowledge</i> that Turing's contribution to the Symposium "Mind and Machine" was "foreshadowed" by his paper on "Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals". That paper "deserves to be read and understood far more than it has been." (Turing 1939, p. 71, introduction.) It addressed Gödel's incompleteness theorems, but towards the end, the author leaves technical mathematical language behind and reflects upon mathematical reasoning; and it was most likely this § 11 that caught Polanyi's attention. "Mathematical reasoning may be regarded rather schematically as the exercise of a combination of tool faculties, which we may call intuition and ingenuity." (Turing 1939, p. 214) In a footnote he clarifies that he is "leaving out of account that most important faculty which distinguishes topics of interest from others; in fact, we are regarding the function of the mathematician as simply to determine the truth or falsity of propositions." Again an example of Turing's sense of irony: the most important thing is left out. But that leaves us with understanding that the reach of his number theory goes exactly as far as truth and falsity of propositions go. This is no reductionism. In describing the function of intuition and ingenuity, he emphasizes the role of intuitive judgment and the need for "suitable arrangements of propositions" and takes it for granted that "these two faculties differ of course from occasion to occasion, and from mathematician to mathematician." Again, assuming that Turing is leaving technical mathematical language behind, his description can only be understood as the establishment of the competence that Polanyi would have understood to be 'personal'. It seems this is the passage Polanyi had in mind when he invoked Gödel for having proven that there is a non-formalized capability of the human mind. "In pre-Gödel times it was thought by some that it would probably be possible to carry this program to such a point that all the intuitive judgments of mathematics could be replaced by a finite number of these rules. The necessity for intuition would then be entirely eliminated." (Turing 1939, p. 215) Reductionism in the sense of eliminating the personal component has been overcome by Gödel and, consequently, Turing. To eliminate the personal component is a methodical aim for the sake of mathematical theory. Therefore during states: "We are always able to obtain from the rules of a formal logic a method of enumerating the propositions proved by its means. We then imagine that all proofs take the form of a search through with this enumeration for the theorem for which a proof is desired. In this way ingenuity is replaced by patience." He calls that "heuristic". (Ibid.)</div><div class="MsoNormal">Turing's paper on "Systems of logic based on ordinals" may have been extraordinary within his own production, but Polanyi found it more important than his famous 1950 paper. It seems the mathematician was "steaming straight ahead with the analysis of the mind, by studying a question complementary to 'On Computable Numbers'," as Andrew Hodges put it. "The Turing machine construction had showed how to make all formal proofs 'mechanical'; and in the present paper such mechanical operations were to be taken as trivial, instead putting under the microscope the non-mechanical steps which remained." (Hodges 1999, pp. 19-21) Therefore if the analysis of human thought is at the focus of attention, the distinction upon which Polanyi and Turing agreed, namely, that between rules and knowing rules turns out to be constitutive for any theory of thinking and computing.</div><div class="MsoNormal">As a young man, Turing had mused about the "Nature of Spirit" and described the same relationship as follows: "As regards the question of why we have bodies at all; why we do not or cannot live free as spirits and communicate as such, we probably could do so but there would be nothing whatever to do. The body provides a something for the spirit to look after and use." (Hodges 1983, p. 64) This is patently the traditional language of body-soul-dualism, and it will take some education to translate that into problems of logic and mathematics. But looking back the structural identity is clear. There is a relationship of independence and manifestation that cannot be 'reduced' or 'eliminated'. Obviously pure non-formalized thought would be as 'boring' as an absolutely free spirit. On the other hand, science is after the laws of matter. Polanyi expressed that in the context of his recapitulation of the Manchester debate by assuming that a mechanical approach implies to determine that a particular object is seen to be a machine, a perspective that in and of itself leaves already simple mechanistic views behind. "A machine is an interpretation of an observed mind ... and not of an observing mind ..." (Polanyi 1952, p. 315) "For a machine is a machine only for someone who relies on it … for some purpose, that he believes to be attainable by what he considers to be the proper functioning of the machine: it is an instrument of a person who relies on it." (Polanyi 1974, p. 262)</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-65392343425969217252010-08-13T08:23:00.000-07:002010-08-13T11:24:33.367-07:00Personalized Philosophizing A Sequel<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPRBlum%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPRBlum%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPRBlum%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal">As a sequel to my observations about personalized philosophical argument, here is a quotation from Robert Brandom:</div><div class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></div><div class="MsoQuote">Taking something to be subject to appraisals of its reasons, holding it rationally responsible, is treating it as some<i>one</i>: as one of <i>us </i>(rational beings). This normative attitude toward others is <i>recognition</i>, in the sense of Hegel's central notion of Anerkennung (…). Adopting that attitude is acknowledging a certain kind of <i>community </i>with the one recognized. It is the fellowship of those we acknowledge not only as <i>sentient </i>(a factual matter of biology), but also as <i>sapient </i>(a normative matter of responsibility and authority). It is attributing a kind of rational personhood, treating others as <i>selves</i>, in the sense of knowers and agents, ones who are <i>responsible </i>for their doings and attitudes. What they are principally responsible for is having reasons for those doings and attitudes.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal">If that were the meaning of those who make personalized arguments in the sense of referring to people rather than arguments (e.g., Platonists rather than Platonism), then philosophical argument would create a community of those who are able and willing to hold certain views on the basis of reasons. The catch is that it is hardly distinguishable whether a someone is not acknowledging a reason or is perhaps able to acknowledge it but not willing to do so. So, if everything goes well, one can be glad to share community with the great minds as well as with the unknown readers (as I am about to do with Robert Brandom and the unknown reader of this note). But what if things go wrong? What if Brandom would be appalled by my adopting his statement? That is, I might have misunderstood him. And what if my audience is unwilling to create some kind of community with me (with my reasoning, to be sure)? Skepticism is ruled out as soon as I shape my arguments in a way that the normativity of my argument (that's Brandom's context) appears to be intrusive. What if things go wrong because I <i>am </i>wrong? Would I commit my audience to err with me? No harm done as long as I appeal to reason alone rather than commitment. The first, second, third person talk in philosophy eludes objectivity through a false personal agreement on allegedly rational argument. In saying "us" Brandom wants to emphasize the structure of commitment that underlies rational argument. But although there is no understanding without commitment to what has been understood, as Michael Polanyi has pointed out, rationality has to be wise in avoiding by all means the appearance of a reversal between reasonability and responsibility: I as a speaker, claiming to have good reasons, do not take you as the reader hostage to my arguments. </div><div class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal">[Robert B. Brandom:<i> Reason in Philosophy. Animating Ideas.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts:Belknap Press, 2009, p. 3.]</div><div class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-16804042852817411492010-06-20T18:27:00.000-07:002012-07-09T12:42:00.225-07:00Heidegger: Language is the home of the Being. In its housing man is at home<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
This essay is not available at<br /><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17496977.2012.694176">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17496977.2012.694176</a><br />as<br />
Rhetoric is the Home of the Transcendent: Ernesto Grassi's Response to Heidegger's Attack on Humanism<br />
<i>Intellectual History Review </i>Volume 22, Issue 2, 2012<br /><br /><br /></div>PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-40588650504769256512010-03-30T13:44:00.000-07:002010-03-30T13:48:27.204-07:00What is a Strong Truth?Listen to a discussion of some Loyola professors and students about truth:<br /><br /><a href="http://loyola.edu/lcast">http://loyola.edu/lcast</a><br />or <a href="http://webmedia.loyola.edu/lcast/spring10/episode8_S10_listennow.mp3">download</a>.PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-359012007444413052010-02-25T05:49:00.000-08:002010-02-25T06:02:51.156-08:00Das Wagnis, ein Mensch zu sein: Geschichte - Natur - Religion<a style="" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_rXaoiajFi6s/S4aAzSMBcbI/AAAAAAAAAAY/rpimki6AlYM/s1600-h/90032-6.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 140px; height: 200px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_rXaoiajFi6s/S4aAzSMBcbI/AAAAAAAAAAY/rpimki6AlYM/s200/90032-6.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5442178818267771314" border="0" /></a>
<br /><span style="">Paul Richard Blum
<br /></span> <a style="color: rgb(51, 153, 153);" href="http://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/3-643-90032-6"><b><span style="">Das Wagnis, ein Mensch zu sein:
<br />Geschichte - Natur - Religion</span></b></a>
<br /> Studien zur neuzeitlichen Philosophie
<br /> Reihe: <i>Philosophie: Forschung und Wissenschaft</i>
<br /> Bd. 31, 2010, 336 S., 39.90 EUR, br., ISBN 978-3-643-90032-6
<br />
<br />
<br />"Die eigentliche Optik Paul Richard Blums sollte man akkurat als holistisch bezeichnen. Es handelt sich um ein verborgenes Streben nach Ganzheitlichkeit, das diesem Buch eine methodologische Einheit gibt. ... Ein Mensch zu sein nach dem Zeitalter der Renaissance und Moderne ... bedeutet die Aufgabe, sich in einer strukturellen und inhaltlichen Offenheit zu situieren, die die verschiedenen Antworten auf die Frage: Was heißt es, ein Mensch zu sein? in der paradoxen Einheit eines neuen Humanismus zusammenbringt. ... Genau wie die Philosophie des 20. Jahrhunderts ... das Fragen selbst ins Zentrum des Denkens stellte, so versucht Blum, Peter Wust folgend, das Prinzip insecuritas als Herzstück seiner Philosophie zu definieren." Balázs Mezei (Budapest)
<br />
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priority="37" name="Bibliography"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="39" qformat="true" name="TOC Heading"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"Cambria Math"; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1107304683 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:Calibri; panose-1:2 15 5 2 2 2 4 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1073750139 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:Gentium; panose-1:2 0 5 3 6 0 0 2 0 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:auto; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-536870657 3 0 0 27 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-indent:.5in; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Gentium; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language:DE;} .MsoChpDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; mso-default-props:yes; font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.0in 1.0in 1.0in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} /* List Definitions */ @list l0 {mso-list-id:1238246094; mso-list-type:hybrid; mso-list-template-ids:-2019290368 1370361784 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715;} @list l0:level1 {mso-level-tab-stop:none; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-language:DE;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-size:85%;">1. Vorbemerkung
<br />2. Die unendliche Aufgabe, ein Humanist zu sein, von Balázs Mezei
<br />3. First, Second, Third Person Philosophy
<br />4. Platonismus
<br />5. Platonische Liebe: Eine wahre Geschichte
<br />6. Zur Monadologie der Geistesgeschichte: Die Bedeutung Philipp Melanchthons für Wilhelm Dilthey
<br />7. The Young Paul Oskar Kristeller as a Philosopher
<br />8. Der Heros des Ursprünglichen: Ernesto Grassi über Giordano Bruno
<br />9. Jacques Maritain Against Modern Pseudo-Humanism
<br />10. Autorität und Demokratie: Yves René Simon
<br />11. "Seinssehnsucht" – Peter Wust kritisiert Martin Heidegger
<br />12. Das Wagnis ein Mensch zu sein: Überlegungen im Anschluß an Peter Wust
<br />13. Expressionistische Lyrik als Existenzphilosophie
<br />14. Acting versus Knowing
<br />15. Die List der Vernunft: Lévinas, Thomas und die Ethik des Wissens
<br />16. Natur als Person. Zur Geschichte des Naturbegriffs
<br />17. Europa – ein Appellbegriff
<br />18. "A pretty curious circumstance in the history of sciences": David Humes Naturalisierung der Religion
<br />19. Satan and the Human Condition: John Milton Read in Terms of René Girard
<br />20. Atonement before guilt: The end of history and the endings of mystery stories
<br />21. The New Genesis: Voltaire's Quarrel with Maupertuis
<br />22. The Immortality of the Intellect Revived: Michael Polanyi and His Debate with Alan M. Turing.
<br />23. Gottes Plan: Von der Physikotheologie zur Theophysik
<br />24. Warum ruhte Gott am Siebten Tag?
<br />
<br /></span>
<br />PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-490591407316447555.post-28042370471509004032009-09-20T15:08:00.000-07:002010-03-03T17:41:18.463-08:00First, Second, Third Person PhilosophyFirst, Second, Third Person Philosophy<br />[now pp. 9-14 in <span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-size:85%;" ><b>Das Wagnis, ein Mensch zu sein: Geschichte - Natur - Religion</b></span>]<br />During the US presidential campaign in 2008, a character was popular as "Joe the Plumber". He was to be the epitome of the working class that was coveted by the candidates. These elections being history now, it remains remarkable that American national economy was personified in this plumber from Ohio. Even if we leave aside the mechanisms of media democracy, it is strange that a single person was taken to represent the intentions of the candidates and/or of the electorate. Most likely those who 'used' Joe the Plumber were unwilling to discuss economic issues in theoretical, abstract terms, which prescind from individual people. One might think that an abstract idea was illustrated with the help of an individual. But the parties involved conveyed the image that personifying economy was the limit of their theoretical thinking. The proverbial plumber relieved politicians and commentators from conceptualizing. At least, they did not trust the audience to grasp the political problems conceptually, that is, objectively.<br />The same can be observed in philosophical debates. Frequently philosophers present their arguments by calling persons into action: the dualist, the monist, the Platonic, and others. It has the appearance of a Platonic dialogue that allows the opponents to voice their opinions. If that were the case it would be truly philosophical, because Plato had personified philosophical problems in Socrates and his interlocutors. Historic or fictional persons served to illustrate philosophical problems. In Plato, this was not just a literary ploy; he positively maintained that some philosophical problems can only be treated in the process of thinking as depicted in speaking, that is, those problems cannot be addressed in the form of propositions. Socrates is what you get when you philosophize, if you are Plato. Since no reader of this sentence is Plato, it easily translates into: Plato's philosophy created the character of Socrates. The difference between both statements is that the first seems to include the reader,[1] whereas the second is merely factual. The you-mode appeals to the reader who – depending on the context – may take it as an encouragement, critique, or any other psychological involvement that oversteps the limits of factual exchange. Oftentimes such overtones divert from the facts.<br />Modern scholarly parlance enjoys tying entire packages of arguments with one name: "Rawls says", "With Habermas", "As Thomas Nagel said". In those cases the argument is not abbreviated but labeled with a name without taking pains to actually think the argument. The reader, too, is not expected to recapitulate the argument. It is an extreme case of an argument from authority, for when referring to an authority it is rhetorically presupposed that the audience has familiarity with it or at least would be able, any time, to reproduce the doctrine of the authority. Therefore the question arises whether reference to philosophical plumbers allows returning to an objective treatment of the same problem. Does reference to some "monist" or "compatibilist" really invite to rethink the pattern of their thought without personifying? Probably not. For the sake of experiment, let us translate the third person into the second, and then into the first person: "The Dualist is my opponent; i.e., you, my opponent, hold this or that belief, which I am about to refute. Hence follows that I, first person, argue thus …" Here is an example from Imre Lakatos, speaking about the high frequency of simultaneous discoveries in sciences:<br /><blockquote>For this problem vulgar-Marxists have an easy solution: discovery is made by many people at the same time, once a social need for it arises. Now what constitutes a 'discovery', and especially a major discovery, depends on one's methodology. For the inductivist, the most important discoveries are factual, and, indeed, such discoveries are frequently made simultaneously. For the falsificationist a major discovery consists in the discovery of a theory rather than a fact. Once a theory is discovered (or rather invented), it becomes public property; and nothing is more obvious than that several people will test it simultaneously and make, simultaneously, (minor) factual discoveries.[2] </blockquote>The objective problem of factually overlapping activities is addressed using labels. In each case, not the argument, only the result is presented. A scholarly book presupposes some familiarity with the theories in question. Nevertheless, no effort is made to explain how and why the various "–ists" came to their conclusions, although this is a book on methodology of science and within it a section on history. Since the argumentative framework of each proposition is reduced to a historic tab, the book should be shelved as scientific fiction. Francis Bacon's The New Atlantis could stand next to it, because Lakatos also advocates research programs. The only difference is that in the quoted passage he applies the program pattern retrospectively to the history of science. The key problem in this example is the fact that there is an asymmetry between premises and conclusion: The premise is personified, the conclusion factual. The personified premise ("-ists say") abbreviates the objective and theoretical reasoning to the extent that it is not recognizable and, therefore, the conclusion can only be judged on the basis of the reader's and the author's framework.<br />The third person rhetoric turns out to be a first person argument. Invoking a party, school, or any –ism reveals itself as directing the view to the speaker. This is where the philosopher's and the politician's strategies converge: both are mainly interested in themselves. Unless you are Plato, and unless you truly believe that thoughts are the only reality and cannot be reported otherwise than by ascribing them to an individual person, to argue with reference to people, rather than ideas, concepts, problems, things, or anything else objective, is nothing but egocentric conceit. Egotism is not necessarily a philosophical flaw, depending on the philosopher. But the contrast between thinking of persons and thinking about objective issues is worth exploring, especially if some arguments go simply wrong due to the misled style of thinking.<br />Incidentally, there are historic reasons for this fashion of personalizing a message. Humanist thinkers of the Renaissance drew the conclusion from the Scholastic style of philosophical and theological inquiry that no reality can have an impact on the human person that has not been personally processed in thought. Consequently, they also refrained from presenting insight in a systematic way and preferred writing poems, letters, invectives, etc. Later thinkers, well trained in Scholastic debates, adopted this turn of perspective and aimed at reassuring the audience that every single idea they were purporting had been thoroughly thought through. Ever since Giordano Bruno a philosopher would claim his own personality as first and ultimate witness for the truth of his teaching. With René Descartes the "I think" became a touchstone of philosophical quality. However, Bruno and Descartes, and certainty Kant and Hegel, not to speak of phenomenologists and existentialists, they all aimed at absolute trans-individual reality. (With the exception of the nihilist rejection of reality beyond human existence, as in Nietzsche.) They wrapped their insights in the first-person rhetoric, because to claim an objective reality was (in the wake of nominalism and voluntarism) suspect of begging the question. Therefore they would eclipse from their arguments that world, which they were to enquire. Subjectivity, the power of the personal mind, was the only accessible source of knowledge. Of course, they all had to presuppose the structural identity of everyone's mind and thus the communicability of first-person ideas. At this point it is inevitable to refer to persons and schools, because the object of this paragraph is the history of the structure of the first-person argument. To sum up, modern philosophy's battle cry is: <em>Truth is what I think!</em><br />Again, if the process of reasoning is the topic of a thought it can be convenient to depict it with the help of a person. Objectified presentation can even go wrong if the question is, for instance, whether love is a person or a thing, and if the outcome is that it consists in the transition (as Plato taught). The thrust of the argument, here, is that reification is misleading, and therefore the argument itself should rather not be objectifying. First-person arguments occur frequently in psychological epistemology: problems of cognition, specifically those of sense perception, offer themselves to expressions in the first person. At the same time, there is no need to move over to a second person. Yet it might be useful to refer to third persons. In empirical psychology and pedagogy people are observed or act as test persons for the sake of exemplifying a theory. Unfortunately, this is not the case in many philosophical treatises, which either do not really illustrate any theory with the help of real or fictional people or conceal stratagems under the veil of personalized arguments.<br />An interesting example is Daniel C. Dennett's usage of persons. In his Consciousness explained he promises to "explain the various phenomena that compose what we call consciousness" and then continues: "it is very hard to imagine how your mind could be your brain … In order to imagine this, you really have to know quite a lot of what science has discovered about how brains work, but much more important, you have to learn new ways of thinking."[3] Of course the rhetoric is that of college teaching, suitable for an introduction. But Dennett also addresses directly the question of personal perspective. Since Descartes had used the first-person perspective that had fostered the notion of consciousness, experimental psychology preferred third-person perspective, in which "only facts garnered 'from the outside' count as data" (70). So, if the author is aware of the tricks of personalized presentation, why does he use the second person in describing the problem of understanding mind and brain? According to Dennett there is no consciousness. Mind is nothing but brain. Science is the objective authority ("quite a lot") concerning the workings of mind and brain. In spite of this reductionism, in the quotation there is imagination, there is learning, there is creativity, and – surprise! – there is thinking. How is such a performative contradiction possible? If "just rhetoric!" is the answer, then the author has put off at least one reader. Playful promises make the objectivity of the science dubitable. Obviously, the second-person appeal undoes the strong factual claim of a reductionist psychology. Perhaps, we should leave it at that.<br />A second example from philosophy of mind comes from John R. Searle. In his book Intentionality Searle confesses to despise "all this distinguished past", for, as he states bluntly, that his "only hope of resolving the worries which led me into this study … lay in the relentless pursuit of my own investigation."[4] First question: What makes John Searle believe that any reader cares about his worries? Why should readers be distracted from their own worries by worrying with and about Searle? After all, even to his contemporaries Searle was "distinguished past" once his book was out. This is a double attack of the philosopher: first he discards history; then he waves his own white flag for fear of being overlooked. On the other hand, second question: If philosophy is done by persons who successfully worry, why are those of the past to be discarded? Because they don't listen? But why not listen to them? Searle's worries are the heritage of European philosophy and should be treated according to its standards. The argumentative figure of 'the philosopher as the sole guarantor of his philosophy', as described above, is patent. In this sense the 20th century thinker is just mimicking Descartes on his retreat in Ulm. But is he also justified to do so? That is: does his argument gain by neglecting the past, given that this neglect has its history? Searle's rhetorical gesture is that of captatio benevolentiae. Such an opening is always risky, because it can go wrong, and as a rhetorical figure there is no second chance to repair it. So, the question is this: why does a philosopher have to covet the sympathy of the anonymous audience? To cover up the weakness of the argument? Or a hidden agenda? Again, the gesture is suspicious. But, perhaps the audience is not at all anonymous but a well defined group of colleagues and students. The implicit reader is to be an accomplice? All this has nothing to do with philosophy, it can happen in any corporation, business, association, etc. First-person philosophy can push beyond the fringes of philosophy.<br />Here I need to take up the cudgels on behalf of history. When dealing with philosophy of mind or with any other problem within the realm of anthropology, the philosopher is part of history and history is part of the problem. The very idea of relating to the world, which is at the core of intentionality and, generally, of philosophy of mind, this thought has evolved over a long way. The way 21st century thinkers worry about it started somewhere and sometime in the evolution of humanity and had significant leaps and detours and fallbacks and turns. Descartes is one of them. So far, present day philosophy of mind is just one station on a way. Each philosopher pushes it further, some try shortcuts, some explore dead end streets. But the question of mind, thinking about thinking, is genuinely human. Radical denial of the anthropological essence of thinking about thinking defeats itself; it is a performative contradiction as any skepticism. Everything human has a history (as far as anyone can look back). To think about the human mind, therefore, requires thinking about what others have thought. Right or wrong: what others have thought is thinking. If, as Descartes and Searle pretend, the past is distinguished as being superfluous, how was it possible that the past thinkers did not think as "I" (Descartes, Searle) think? What, if at all, did they think? Concepts like mind, consciousness, awareness, pain, reality, relation, organism, etc. have a meaning that cannot be makeshift wisdom. Such a thing does not exist. For philosophers, third-person psychology is thinking the past.<br />Philosophical plumbing hopes to encapsulate a problem in a person: I, we, you, he, they. Philosophical history liberates, at least, from the pressure to flirt with the audience or to expose one's own flaws (for no philosopher is right who does not take conceptual risks). Matters of science, as much as they belong to science, are definitely exempt of personal components (pace Michael Polanyi). Even if the philosopher is the only object truly known, the object remains objective, and true propositions cannot be thought of as true only in personal perspective. To say otherwise would make the personal perspective an objective truth. Therefore, to defend, for instance, the identity of mind and brain as a solipsistic insight or as a party game; to summarize in a falsifiable proposition the allegedly idiosyncratic take on science of some people; to rally for economic plans on the back of some chap from Ohio; all this is misleading. Philosophy starts with careful reading and goes a long way with it.<br /><br /><strong>Notes:</strong><br />[1] A peculiarity of the English language facilitates the transition from factual statements to second-person allocutions: the generic "you". For instance in Shakespeare's Measure for Measure, IV 2: "Every true man's apparel fits your thief: if it be too little for your thief, your true man thinks it big enough … "<br />[2] Imre Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, 115.<br />[3] Daniel C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained, Boston: Little, Brown, 1991, 16.<br />[4] John R. Searle, Intentionality. An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. ix.PRBhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15914373648824919381noreply@blogger.com0